Literary arguement

Good writers write about life and someone living it, while great writers write about living itself and a living out a struggle that not only captures one person, but it also captures the soul of having a struggle in general. Although story of The World According to Garp has received its fair share rant and rave reviews by the judging public, what makes this book a great read is that it gives us something to talk about. It’s so powerful, that you only either hate it or love it. The storyline is so compelling, that it will you’re your eyes into looking more in the problems not only in the characters of the story, but also the struggle that we face in general. May it be in struggles of classes, or gender and most importantly, fighting for your rights. In the story of the The World According to Garp, from the very opening of this novel, it was pretty evident that the story was not for the weak of heart. It was obvious that the novel was to be dealing with the harsh realities of life that will really grip your attention, not only because of the drama but more importantly; because the story depicts something that we see in the streets and sometimes even our lives itself. What can we read in the novel that is so gripping that it has caused a craze in its time of release? The answer is struggle. From the very beginning â€Å"This was shortly after the Japanese had bombed Pearl Harbor and the people were being tolerant of soldiers, because suddenly everyone was a soldier, but Jenny Fields was quite firm in her intolerance of the behavior of men in general an soldiers in particular. (Iriving 1976, page1)† The story revolves around exactly this; how men, in general was a threat to women like Jenny. Unfortunately, in the harsh reality presented in the book, very few women were empowered to fight against abuses of men. Predictably, like most novels, women were once again depicted as victims and the men were the antagonists whom inflicted pain and suffering to women roles in this novel. What sets this story of story apart though is the level of stress the author took in the brutalization of sex as one of the major sources of oppression for women. Irving has been known to write about this topic not only in this novel, but also in his other works like the â€Å"The Hotel New Hamshire†. Irving has been notorious about putting stress in this issue that a number of book reviews coming from columnists like Doane and Hodges notices that Irving views a great strength in male power and he not only sees it as a day to day occurrence, but more importantly, that he found it as one of the things that are inevitable in the present day scenario. In the perfect words, he explained how he viewed brutalization of sex in The World According to Garp: â€Å"We are all terminal cases. Imagining something is better than remembering something. In this dirty-minded world, you are either somebody's wife or somebody's whore — or fast on your way to becoming one or the other. Between men and women, only death is shared equally. Lust makes the best men behave out of character.† In this statement, Irving caught perfectly in words how the scenario is with women and their battle against any abuse coming from the opposite sex. He capture the scenario its utmost reality to the core of why it was considered as one of the inevitable battles known to women. He dared say what was lying right under our noses but refuse to talk about, human nature at its utmost real and brutal sense. I guess to a certain extent, he had to do it to stress a point, someone had to point a finger to that problem for people to start facing the possibility of finding a solution to how men generally treat women. Even though some feminists responded to his novel with great retaliation to how he depicted women in his novel, what most feminists failed to notice was that his intentions in painting color to brutalization in sex into his novels was intended not to put down women to accept such roles, but rather to fight it. Unlike most authors who make women roles the typical traditional roles that box up women to be submissive and weak, Irving’s intention of writing about women in that light was to point out a problem that women face to come up with the end result of inspiring readers to do something about it. He took a man’s role and a woman’s role and torn all its clothes out to the point where in it was completely naked for us to pick on what was wrong with the picture that we have always been presented to but never really had a chance to look at. If you ask me, I think no author has ever done that simply for the reason of having people get the wrong impression of what he was trying to say. It’s a pity that very few try this tactic, coz you know if you have a great novel in your hand if your only allowed to have two of the varying reactions to reading it; you either hate it or love it. Why is this so? Because in the two varying ends of the pole, the book achieved what it’s author’s intention was to begin with; stir your emotions and strike a chord. As for Irving’s Goal in stressing a point in exposing brutalization in sex in his novel, I think he pretty much achieved it by simply stirring an outburst of public opinion in the feminist movement. Even though the general reaction to the context of his novel may initially be bad for women in the feminist movement, eventually true colors came up to float and women now realize the real point of Irving’s writing about how painful it is to be a woman. On the contrary, by showing women’s weaknesses in his novel, he achieved the exact opposite by illustrating how strong women are by coping with it, this is pretty evident in the story and characters of the women in the novel, especially Jenny References: Irving, J., Mc Caferrey, L. 1982, ‘An interview with John Irving’, Contemporary Literature 23, no. 1, winter, pp.1-18. Irving J., The World according to Garp [online] 1996, Available: http://cqu.edu.Au/arts/humanities/listud/naff/naff7irving.html[2007, October 17] Larson J., ‘The World According to Garp’ and ‘The Hotel Hampshire’ [online] 2005, available: http://epubl.ltu.se/1402-1773/2005/090/LTU-CUPP-05090-SE.pdf [2007, October 17]

Five methods of Departmentalization Essay

Essay Topic â€Å"What five methods have traditionally been used to departmentalize work and worker? Give one advantage and one disadvantage of each. Provide an example of functional departmentalization at your University and using the definitions in your textbook explain why it is suitable example. (Chapter 9)† In any size of the organization or complexity workplace, organizational structures are very important factors that the businesses must have, so the employee will know their position, their responsibilities and tasks. To develop and improve organization performance, the organization can use various structural can take on, however the organization need to find the best organisational structure that depends on many factors including the work, products or services, the size of the employee, geographic and target market (demographic customer’s base). The following section provides details of the five methods have traditionally been used to departmentalize employee and jobs, also advantage and disadvantage each of the methods. Traditional organizational structures are connections among these positions are demonstrated in an organisational Chart which will show how management is organized ‘vertical and horizontal configuration of departments, authority and job within a companyà ¢â‚¬â„¢ (Williams & McWilliams 2010, p.175) each of department has a manager, who runs day- to- day operations and ultimately report to the CEO, however this traditional model is common use in all church, government and military organization, because these organizations are stable, cannot respond to change and slow to act. For example every soldiers answer to his commanding officer, while the president is at the top of the chain as command-in-chief. Departmentalization is ‘the subdivision of work is the basic meaning of â€Å"forms†. The multidivisional form is defined as decentralized management structure; organized into products divisions, each division containing a unitary structure; and a central office to make to strategic decisions.’ (P. James L. 1997) generally the basic decisions that managers have to make as they develop a traditional organizational structure are using the five traditional methods of functional, product, customer, geographic and matrix departmentalization. Which mean two or more people working together as a group to complete a specific task, by divided the group to work in different departmentalization, to help achieve the  organization objectives and goals. However ‘Determining the functions to be performed involves consideration of division of labour,’ (P. Montanna &B. Charnov, 1993, p. 1) and depending on the size of the grouping that managers supervise. The degree of decision-making authority is centralization and usually were made by the top management of the highest vertically structures hierarchy. This section is additional detail and description of five methods has been used traditionally to departmentalization. Functional departmentalization: group of employee and job based on work performance, example finance and accounting, marketing and sale, human resource and administration and technical and operating. For another example of Functional departmentalization at Victoria University is Academic Support and Development because this department can students with University assessment tasks such as writing skills, reference skills, online language translator and providing expert support the student academic success and retention across the university. The advantage of functional departmentalization is efficiency of work and is to be done by specialist skills and high qualified. The disadvantage is inflexibility of work because the stuff only is qualifies for one specialisation. Products departmentalization: group of employee and work for producing major product or services area in the organization or company. Example David Jones, women’s clothing, men’s clothing, home and food. The advantage of the product departmentalization is that increases accountability for product performance and allow manager and employee work in one area of expertise. The disadvantage is the challenge of coordinating across different product departments. Customer departmentalization: group of employee and work into particular responsibility based on customer’s problem and need. Example: government, education, health, wholesale or retail. The advantage is focused on customer need rather than on products or business function. The disadvantage customer departmentalization is the satisfaction or feedback from customer is challenging of coordinating across different customer departments. Geographic Departmentalization: groups of employee and work ‘into separate units responsible for doing business in particular geographic area’ (Williams & McWilliams 2010, p.180). Example North, South, West, East). The advantage of geographic departmentalization is face to face communication between the service provider and service receiver. The  disadvantage is required more human capital and the control cannot exercise effectively. Matrix departmentalization: a combined of one or two group form of departmentalization are used together based on particular project, most often are from product and functional departmentalization working together. The advantage of matrix departmentalization is allowing the organization to efficiently manage large, complex tasks and efficiency avoiding duplication. The disadvantage is requires a high level of management skill and can cause of conflict between bosses in departments. Through a different perspective on the issue can be seen by comparing between traditional model and modern model of the organizational structures, the traditional of organizational structures is illustrated as have effectiveness and efficiency of products or services more than modern organizational structures. Because of emphasis on job specialization, highly performed on definite procedures and policy in the organization that effective work and worker, also the decentralization ‘is the location of most authority at the upper levels of the organization. In a centralized organization, manager makes the most decision, even the relatively small one’ (Williams & McWilliams 2010, p.185) which help and improve the organization achieve their objectives and goals are better and quicker than apply on modern organizational structures. For the modern or twentieth c entury organizational structures is redesigning of making objective and goals setting process is through empower worker. According to(Williams & McWilliams 2010, p.185) Empower worker means’ permanently passing decision –making authority and responsibility from managers to workers by giving them the information and resources they need to make and carry out good decisions’. Which means all the process need to be share to every levels and decentralized authority is allowing a significant amount of worker within the organization make the decision necessary to solve the problem. In conclusion the traditional organizational structures has five methods been used to departmentalizing work and workers such as the work Functional performs, the Product or Service offered, the target Customer or client, the Geographic region covered and the Matrix project that is combine or form two or more departmentalization to work together. These methods are used to in organization which effect work and worker with the best contribute to accomplishment organization’s objectives and goals. Reference list Brews. P.J & Tucci. C. L, 2004, ‘exploring the structural effect of internetworking’, strategic management journal, vol. 25. No. 5, pp. 429-451 Woll .L.F.K & Moliance. M, 2013’do organizational structure, ‘work environment and gender matter?’ creatively and implementations of new ideas, international journal of gender and entrepreneurship, vol. 5. No.3. pp. 298-315 Dufty.N, 1996, ‘ a note on departmentalization in an institute of technology’, journal of education administration, vol. 4. No. 1, pp. 32-48 Williams. C & McWilliams. A, 2010, MGMT 1st Asian Pacific Edition, Cengage Learning Australia Pty, South Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Price. L. J, 1997, ‘handbook of organization measurement’, international journal of Manpower, vol. 18 Iss 4/5/6 pp.305-558 P. Montanna & B. Charnov, 1993, ‘chapter 11: organizational structures: concepts and formats’, management: A streamlined course for students & business people . (Hauppauge, New York: Barron’s Business Reviewed Series), pp. 155-169

Movie Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Movie Review - Essay Example The actions of both Kevin O’Donnel and Sean Miller amply convey this fact. â€Å" Our society in the West has, quite literally, an investment in perpetuating the myth of an evil force... Without it, movies and writing would be less interesting because evil villains represent in some powerful manner the way many people perceive the world†(R. F. Baumeister, W.H. Freeman & Co, 1996). People often think of evil as what is outside of them, and even if an evil action is chosen, there is a justification since there is something good in the expected outcome. This is the outlook of the terrorists. The discussion shows how people can be properly be made aware of the dangers of terrorism and how realistic the two movies are in conveying the facts regarding terrorism. In the movie Patriot Games, we see the fear of terrorism casting its spell throughout the life of Jack Ryan and his family. He and his family are on a visit England. He has worked as an intelligence agent in the U.S. A. his helps him to be vigilant. He is also making use of his London vacation for his research, as he is writing a book. He has met his wife Cathy an ophthalmological surgeon and daughter Sally and they are discussing where to go for dinner that evening. At that time there is an explosion behind them. He gets his family under cover and sees three men attacking a Rolls Roys. Taking advantage of his perfect position to interfere, he charges in and kills one man and has wounded another. The men are from the Ulster Liberation Army (ULA), an ultra-violent off shoot of the violent Provisional wing of the Irish Republican Army (PIRA). Now he becomes a local hero in England, as the occupants of the car he saved are the members of the Royal Family. But the head of the ULA Kevin O’Donnell is quite upset. Sean Miller, who had planned the operation, who is now caught, is also furious at Jack’s interference. The PIRA is also not happy with Kevin O’Donnell for attacking the Royal

Romanticism and Realism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Romanticism and Realism - Essay Example It should be noted here that this was a time when religion had lost its hold over the common man with the advent of modernity. Religion and mythology were losing the charm and power they exercised over the common man. Also church was no longer the only powerful figure who commissioned artists to paint artworks on religious or mythological stories. Thus artists became inspired by the common man. In both the romantic and the realist era, common man gained a certain respect. Artists became fascinated with the life of the common man and focused on his life. The Romantic focused on the common man’s emotions while the realists focused on the commonness of man. Both the art movements were more inspired by the rural man rather than the urban one. This is because previously rural life had been ignored in the art circle and in the Romantic era, the subject came forward as an original subject or theme. This was then brought forward by the Realist movement where artists removed the exagge rated emotion from the common man and presented him as he was. In order to draw an effective comparison between the two movements, one artwork from both the movements would be analyzed. The artwork selected from the Romantic Era is The Raft of Medusa painted by Thà ©odore Gà ©ricault. The painting selected from the Realist Era is Stone Breakers by Gustav Courbet. The Raft of Medusa depicts the survivors of the French naval frigate Meduse. It depicts a horrendous scene about how the survivors endured the destruction and how they lived.

Advanced HealthCare Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Advanced HealthCare Management - Assignment Example Likewise, the understaffing and being overworked could result to errors (medication errors, documentation errors, and even errors in the effective deliver y of patient care); as well as low morale, low productivity, job dissatisfaction, and high turnover. As reported in a news article, â€Å"a study of physicians in Massachusetts released today indicates poor RN-to-patient ratios in hospitals are resulting in significant harm and even death for patients. According to the survey, physicians rank understaffing of registered nurses as the biggest problem in Massachusetts hospitals directly affecting patient care† (Massachusetts Nurses Association, 2005, par. 1). The proposed solution to this motivational problem are as follows: job redesign through (1) a review of the staffing requirements based on the number of patients that are regularly confined in the health care setting; (2) determining the most appropriate nurse-patient ratio; (3) hire new or temporary nurses as deemed needed to addressing understaffing concerns, either on a short-term or long-term basis. Through these recommendations, the root cause of the problem would be determined through identifying the current number of patients who are being attended to, as well as the current supply of nurses in the organization. Current changes in the external environment could have significantly altered the demand and supply of patients and nurses which contributed to the problem. The second motivational problem is inadequate support or resources. For instance, in a nursing unit, there should be some expected level of supplies, equipment, medications, and hospital forms which are critical in undertaking the stipulated responsibilities. The list could include medical supplies and equipment in the emergency cart, prescribed medications, as well as patients’ charts and forms, among others. If any of these are inadequate, the performance of nurses would be jeopardized in terms of potentially affecting the level

Death penalty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Death penalty - Essay Example Even though I was too young to understand the meaning completely, the issue had a great impact on me. . After long term consideration I believe that the death penalty should be legal because it helps prevent violent crime and saves lives of innocent people. Different countries view the death penalty differently. Here what I would like to talk about is the death penalty in China, Japan and the U.S. These countries are the three largest economies in the world, and they are where I have grown up and live. . Japan and China are based on Eastern culture, and the U.S is based on Western Culture. They have similarities and differences; however, they all have the death penalty. In the U.S. there are two reasons why people support death penalty, and they are retribution and deterrence. The idea of retribution is that a murderer must sacrifice his life because he took someone’s life, and the basic idea is â€Å"an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.† The idea of deterrence i s that death penalty can prevent people from committing murder. Both Japan and China subscribe to these two reasons for the death penalty, but seem to be more supportive of the death penalty than people in the U.S. ... students were the lowest and Japanese students were in the middle (Shanhe et al.). I grew up in Japan and China, and this might contribute to the reason why I strongly agree with death penalty. The death penalty may be a factor in saving lives. People make their decisions based on their costs or benefits; therefore, a person may stop himself from killing someone if he knows he may be executed as a result (Muhlhausen). It is similar to not stealing because there will be a punishment. If the punishment is execution there will be less likelihood of stealing. The stricter the law, the less and less people commit a crime because everybody fears death, even animals. Most criminals would think twice if they knew their own lives were at stake. Second, many studies have shown that executions can lead to a decrease in murder rates; and on the other hand that abolishing the death penalty increases the incidence of murder. Professor Shepherd analyzed data from 1977 to 1999 and found that the com bination of death row sentences and executions deterred many types of murders. She estimated that each death row sentence deters approximately 4.5 murders, and each execution approximately 3 murders. A second issue Shepherd examined was the impact of delaying the execution on deterrence. The numerous appeals and stays of execution that criminals request imply that they prefer lengthy death row waits. Shepherd therefore theorized that shortening the death row wait may increase the deterrence, and estimates that for every 2.75 year reduction in the death row wait for execution one extra murder could be deterred. It means that shorter term of waiting execution can save human’s life (Muhlhausen). According to the U.S. Murder Rate and Executions, the murder rate decreases when the

Article summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Article summary - Essay Example This quote directly fits in with the overall theme of how people, for example in China, seek to step aside from having conversations directly when it comes to the discussion of sexual issues in nature. One of the reasons in many ways can be seen as a lack of communication between parents and children on this issue. There is a very strong cultural/society influence on how such issues are looked at and talked about. Towards the middle of the article, Ford mentions the level that China had stepped towards adopting a more Western approach to how they go about doing things. A fear among some parents that if the children were to have knowledge about sexual issues, that would enable them to take part in the issue. Making light of the ratings system that the United States has, Ford addresses the Chinese approach to having one. Yin Hong, a deputy head of Tsinghua University's Journalism School is quoted in the article when he says, "The time is not ripe for China to institute a ratings system," says Yin Hong, a film critic and deputy head of Tsinghua University's Journalism School," (Ford, 2/2/07). Many of the points which Peter Ford mentions in his article are very important to understanding the bigger story.

Criminal law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Criminal law - Assignment Example I believe that the wearing of the disguises added more intent to the crime. The use of violence also added necessitated the treatment of the crime as an adult offense. Section 8 of the Theft Act 1968 is primarily the law relevant to this case2. Robbery is considered an aggravated form of theft which involves force or the threat of force on a person. The robbery is further aggravated in this case by the wearing of disguises3. In general, the act of Alura includes the various elements of the crime of robbery, where an individual who steals, immediately before or at the time of stealing, uses force or threat of force, on any person, and uses such force or threat of force in order to steal4. The law is accurately portrayed in the article, as the elements of the crimes constituting robbery are presented in the article. What is downplayed however in the discussion is the age of the offender which is below the age of majority. In taking issue with discernment, the fact that the minor was ab le to plan out the crimes and having the foresight and skills to prepare disguises to conceal his identity indicates adequate discernment which should make him liable as an adult offender, therefore be treated and sentenced as such. 2. Graff Diamonds robber Aman Kassaye jailed for 23 years The issue discussed by the article refers to the crime of robbery, the sentence imposed by the courts, and the different aggravating elements which included the commission of the offense. The conspiracy to rob committed by the other conspirators to the crime was also indicated in the article5. I believe that the article covered the major elements pertinent to the robbery. As was discussed in the earlier article, the use of force or the threat or force or violence aggravates theft into robbery6. Moreover, impunity is added to the robbery with the use of disguises to the commission of the crime, hence the sentence of the offenders is in the higher ranges7. The cases of R v. Harding and R v. Eubank d emonstrate the increase in penalty for offenders carrying out armed robberies, with the use of firearms subject to a separate count. The kidnap of the shop assistant also constitutes another crime, which was also treated separately by the court in terms of sentence imposition8. All these elements of the crime combined led to the higher range of sentence imposed on the criminals. The law is more or less accurately portrayed in the article, especially in terms of the higher penalty imposed for the criminals, and the pertinent aggravating circumstances mentioned in the article. The fact that the crime is committed with firearms, with disguises, and with violence indicates elements which the courts would consider in order to establish the existence of the crime of robbery. The article however does not indicate why the sentences are different for the three offenders when they are all conspirators to the same offense. The article also does not mention the damages which were imposed on the different offenders considering that the property stolen amounts to substantial losses for the victims. 3. Gunmen grab diamonds worth ?32m in three minutes The article details the sophistication and the level of deception used by the offenders in order to perpetuate their offense. The article discusses the robbery itself, the use of automatic weapons, the value of the property stolen, and the use of disguises, including the impersonation of police officers in order to carry out the offense9. These details all contribute to the

Business Legal Environmen(230) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Legal Environmen(230) - Essay Example It also develops certainty in the rule of law because the precedents determine outcomes of cases. The doctrine also promotes flexibility in the rule of law by allowing judges to avoid existing precedents and establish new ones. It however also faces disadvantages such as uncertainty because of the wide scope of precedents and judges ability to deviate from a precedent. It also makes the judicial process rigid and it lacks the primary backing of the constitution (Meiners, Ringleb and Edwards, 10). One of the differences between criminal law and civil law is that civil law relates to private rights of members of the society and regulates relationships between private persons, whether natural or artificial, while criminal law relates to public rights against the state and therefore regulates the relationship between the state and citizens. Penalties to offences also define a difference between criminal and civil law. Criminal law induces imprisonment and fine penalties while civil law induces equitable remedies for losses suffered by parties due to civil wrongs (Meiners, Ringleb and Edwards, 108). The Marbury v. Madison involved a conflict in the rule of law that established a dilemma in the applicable law. The primary case involved a suit by Marbury and others who required the Supreme Court to order the secretary of state to deliver their appointment letters. The constitution however failed to stipulate such role for the high court though â€Å"The Judiciary Act of 1789† established the power to issue writ of mandamus. The Supreme Court ruled that the judiciary has the power to determine applicable law in case of such conflicts and this identifies the power of judicial review. The landmark case was important in offering checks on the congress’ legislative power by determining validity of legislated laws (Miller and Jentz, 66). Standing to sue defines the state of having a legal interest in a case before initiating litigation. It provides that a plaintiff

Globe Theatre Essay Example for Free

Globe Theatre Essay We do not know much about Shakespeare’s life. He comes from the small provincial town Stratford that lies on the Avon. His father was a workman, and he was a member of the town council; and he was also the mayor of the town for three years. Shakespeare most likely went to Stratford Grammar School, which can still be seen in the town, however we do not know much about what he learned in school. In 1582, when he was 18 years old, he married Ann Hathaway who was 7-8 years older; she was the oldest daughter of a wealthy farmer. Their first child was born the year after, only six months after the wedding; later they also had twins. There are several explanations as to why Shakespeare traveled to London, but most explanations are anecdotes from recent times. Some researchers believe that he became a member of a theatrical company that was visiting Stratford. The first time we here about him again is in 1592, and at that time he is a well-known person in London. He is mostly known as an actor and as a playwright, but he was also the owner of The Globe Theatre. Shakespeare wrote 37 plays: comedies, tragedies and historical dramas. His plays have something to fit everyone’s tastes; there are exciting plots, strong emotions, colors and comedy. Shakespeare’s themes are love, nature, power and the responsibilities that come with it. The central theme is humans and, especially after 1600, the bitterness towards the humans is most definitely felt. Around 1611 he returned to Stratford, possibly the same year as he wrote The Tempest, which can be read as his goodbye to the theater. He lived his last years in his home town, and died in 1616. He is buried in the Church of the Holy Trinity, and above his grave on the left side of the church, lies his epitaph.

The Cause And Consequence Of Boredom Nursing Essay

The Cause And Consequence Of Boredom Nursing Essay The purpose of this independent study is to identify a topic of my choice namely The Cause and Consequence of Boredom: An exploratory study of Patients Perceptions within a Psychiatric Inpatient Unit. A rationale will be given for the chosen topic, a literature review will be carried out and a Research Proposal formulated. This essay will explore the concept of boredom and the factors surrounding this issue, such as the causes, consequences and solutions from a patients perspective. These factors will constitute my learning outcomes. On completion of the essay I should be able to demonstrate a better understanding on the topic of boredom and from critically evaluating the literature will gain a more in-depth knowledge of the causal factors, the impact it has on patients and the suggested solutions to the problem identified within the literature. Additionally, on completion of the assignment I will have gained knowledge in writing an academic essay, thoroughly researching a topic utilizing critical analysis of academic literature and completing a research proposal thus achieving the stated outcomes. In completing a learning contract this will improve my incentive to focus on my essay and formulate and develop realistic aims and outcomes. In a study carried out by Wai-chi Chan Wai-tong (2000) it was fou nd that a learning contract could improve students autonomy and control over learning and increased motivation and sharing in learning. The rationale for choosing the topic is that as a student within an acute psychiatric admission ward I frequently encounter patients who complain of boredom, and some of the reasons they stated were, having nothing to do, confinement to the ward, nothing going on within the ward, nothing in common with other patients, amongst other perceived attributable factors. This prompted me to think about the legitimacy of their complaints and consider whether the ward environment was in fact hindering or promoting the patients recovery. Craig Power (2010) highlights the problem of boredom within acute ward settings and the notion that it is bad for the patients recovery and that therapeutic intervention tailored to their need should be considered. Similarly, Binnema (2004) suggests that to reduce boredom and enhance the patients experience psychological, physical and personal factors which include therapeutic activities, exercise, physical health, financial and housing issues should be addres sed during the patients hospital stay. Additionally, in consideration of the ward environment I realised that it was rather drab and space was extremely limited. Within the ward there is a large dayroom where social encounters can occur, but it is not conducive to enabling individual or group therapeutic interventions due to the common use of the facilities. Dijkstrak, Pieterse Pruyn (2006) suggest that there is research to support the notion that the healthcare environment can make a difference to the patients recovery. It is therefore important to consider this when supporting patients therapy and recovery. Consequently, it is important for nurses working within an acute environment to consider solution to these problems. Binnema (2004) purports that if nurses had a clear understanding of the concept of boredom, it would support them to enhance their ability to provide a more enhanced therapeutic environment. Therefore, Nurses have a pivotal role to play in improving both the therapeutic relationship with patients whilst ensuring that the environment is conducive to recovery. From a professional perspective, the Department of Health (2002) published a policy on adult acute inpatient care provision in which they highlighted that high levels of interaction between staff and patients within the ward environment reduce boredom. Furthermore, they stressed that in response to a dearth of research on acute inpatient care there was a need for research in the effectiveness of acute services. Binnema (2004) also highlight that many psychiatric patients experience boredom and lack the opportunity to engage therapeutically within the hospital environment, and indicate therefore that there is a necessity for further research of this concept. A concept map will be utilized to generate ideas and enable focus and structure within this essay. Concept maps can be used by students to both gain new knowledge and utilize prior knowledge breaking it down into ideas and put the information in order thus making sense of it and the connotations between and among the concepts (Hinck, Sims-Giddens et al, 2006). The central theme within the concept is Boredom, and this is illustrated along with the sub-themes in (appendix 1). The concept map constructed has particular reference to boredom within an acute psychiatric setting which has been shown to warrant further investigation. Literature Review The literature review was performed taking cognizance of the research topic chosen. Cormack (2000) highlights the importance of carrying out a critical review of what has been known previously within the literature in order to prepare the ground for new research. A literature search was carried utilizing keywords such as boredom, acute care, psychiatric inpatients, acute mental health, therapeutic environment, acute mental health nursing. A systematic review was carried out within academic journals relating to the topic by accessing databases such as EBSCOhost, CINAHL Plus with Full Tex, Ovid, Science Direct, Wiley InterScience, IngentaConnect, to uncover relevant literature pertaining to the subject and to retrieve up-to-date studies to elucidate what research had already been carried and the value of carrying out further research. To understand the concept of boredom it will be of benefit to review the definition within the literature. Kass et al (2001) support the view that boredom proneness as a multidimensional concept and point out that the literature lacks differentiation between boredom as a trait or a state, but that numerous writers suggest a distinction between situational and dispositional boredom. This would therefore pose a dilemma for researchers in proposing a solution to the problem. It is of no surprise therefore that concept of boredom has been studied from different perspectives and by diverse factions. Dahlenthe, Martin, Ragan et al (2004) state that boredom has generated a great deal of research in education, psychology, organizational behaviour, accident prevention and medicine. Anderson (2005) defines boredom as the death of meaning. Fahlman et al (2009) support this belief but are more conservative in their view suggesting it is a lack of meaning and purpose. Barbalet (1999, p.637) further describes boredom as a type or form of anxiety about the lack of meaningfulness of an activity, a condition, and (possibly) a life. These beliefs would suggest that boredom has a significant dispositional component. In contrast, Todman (2003, p.147) describes boredom as an unpleasant state that is invariably accompanied by attributions of environmental sameness, which would imply that it may be attributed to situational factors. As already stated boredom is a multidimensional concept many of which are too complex to address within this essay but those already described can offer a clearer understanding of the concept, that there may be both psychological and environmental components to boredom. Martin, Sadlo Stew (2006) state that modern philosophers are of the opinion that boredom may arise from over-stimulation rather than monotony which originated from ancient times and attribute this to trivia in the modern world. Whereas some studies have suggested that boredom is a result of enforced idleness (Meehan, McIntosh Bergen, 2006). These beliefs would advocate that the origins of boredom may be attributed to environmental factors. Fahlaman et al (2009) have described the relationship between the experience of boredom and negative affect which denotes a psychological phenomenon. It is therefore valid to consider that these could have a significant impact on the behaviour of a patient within an acute inpatient ward. It will be of interest to compare these concepts with the findings from the experiences of the patients within an acute inpatient setting. It is important to consider the impact of boredom within an inpatient setting regardless of the cause. There are significant similarities described within the literature. Beer et al (2001) purport that the negative consequences of overstimulation within acute psychiatric ward settings are violence and aggression. In contrast Stein Wilkinson (2007) attribute these behaviours to under stimulation. However, Khan et al (1987) suggests that low stimulus within the environment is known to decrease psychotic symptoms in the individual. Bracke (2004) associates the provision of rewarding activities with the reduction of boredom. This would imply that involvement in activities of interest to the individual is a significant factor in reducing boredom. In contemplating these views the consequences are varied and complex and could pose a dilemma within an acute ward setting. Consequently it would appear that individual factors would require to be taken account of when considering the solutions to the problem. On searching the literature it was found that there was a dearth of studies on the effects of boredom within a healthcare setting. However, three studies were found where the researchers carried out research within an acute care psychiatric environment, a high-secure forensic setting and a day activity program in rehabilitation centres in which boredom emerged as a concept of both environmental and individual characteristics of participants in the first two studies, and in the third the determinants of boredom were primarily studied which showed that both environmental and individual factors played a part. These will be discussed respectively taking account of Polit et al (2001) method of critiquing research articles namely, methodological, ethical and interpretive dimensions, and will take account of their relevance to the Research Proposal. Study One Shattell, Andes Thomas (2008) carried out a study which was specifically to ask inpatients within a 30 bedded ward, what stands out to them within the hospital environment. A phenomenological approach was utilized in order to acquire direct experiences from patients. 10 patients and 9 nurses took part. Patients diagnosis varied namely personality disorder, depression, substance abuse, bipolar, anxiety disorder and post traumatic stress disorder. Their ethnic background was also varied. Acutely psychotic patients were excluded. There were also various therapeutic activities available within the ward environment. Nurse participants were all female also from various ethnic backgrounds. Ethical factors were considered and informed consent was sought and approved by the sponsoring university. Phenomenological interviews were carried out to gain rich experiences of the participants, and participants were encouraged to elaborate if they wished on the topic. The interviews were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. Themes were generated from meaning units. The vigour of the study was enhanced by presenting the data to the research group who interpreted the data and finalized the thematic structure. Findings showed that experiences of both nurses and patients were similar. Both felt the effects of confinement to the ward and nurses agreed with patients that there was a lack of nurse/patient communication. Rules appeared restrictive to both and intimidating. Participants also highlighted the lack of interaction between nurses and patients. There were general feelings of powerlessness, mistrust which resulted in feelings of panic and agitation. Both nurses and patients questioned the ability of the hospital to help patients namely not addressing their illness effectively and patients being assigned to inappropriate groups. Workload was also a factor for nursing staff. One of the main themes which emerged was boredom and many attributed this to the locked door environment. The main outcome of the study was the lack of meaningful closeness between nurses and patients and the environment hindered the therapeutic relationship. The authors stated that this echoed previous studies. Study 2 Meehan et al (2006) carried out a study within a high security inpatient forensic setting. This study focussed on the reasons for aggressive behaviour of patients. Two wards took part 23 bedded high intensity and 23 bedded low intensity long term unit. 22 male and 5 female inpatients took part and 85% had a diagnosis of schizophrenia. 5 focus groups were conducted by an independent researcher and semi-structured interviews were carried out with a list of questions. Spontaneous feedback was encouraged. The sample was chosen by inviting people to participate through advertisements within wards. Inpatients of less than 3 months or those with acute symptoms were excluded. The study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee within the organization. Data was transcribed and checked by a group moderator to ensure accuracy and authentication. Content analysis was utilized to transcribe the data and they were reviewed several times to generate units of information, produce a set of preliminary categories and cluster these into themes. These were carried out by two members of the research team who compared and discussed these before reaching an agreement on the final set of these. The main themes generated were; the environment, empty days, staff interactions, medication issues and personal characteristics of the patient themselves. Lack of space and prolonged confinement and ignorance of these factors by the staff were main issues. All participants highlighted that boredom was a source of frustration and cancellation of patient activities was a factor. The environment was seen as controlling rather than therapeutic. A lack of understanding and empathy was also identified. The main solutions identified to resolve these was to ensure early intervention to incidents that occurred, change in staff attitudes and provision of therapeutic activities to relieve boredom which was perceived to be the biggest problem within the unit. Study 3 Bracke et al (2006) carried out a study within Rehabilitation Centres and it focused on the conceptualization of boredom exploring some of its determinants. The study tested some hypotheses, and multilevel analysis was utilized to elucidate the contextual and individual determinants of boredom. The participants comprised of a random sample of 646 clients and an average sample of each was chosen. Clients were excluded due to lack of information of key variables. 63% were men with varying levels of educational attainment with a mean age of 44 years. Other demographic information i.e. age, marital status, housing and previous receipt of residential psychiatric care was considered. A survey utilizing a structured questionnaire was carried out and clients experiences of boredom were measured utilizing a Likert scale. Reliability was measured by questioning respondents outside the centre. Variances were analyzed using exploratory factor analysis. Independent variables were also measured e. g. degree or routinization, complexity, closeness of supervision and the intrinsic and extrinsic value of task was coded on a Likert-type scale. Other tools were utilized to measure mental health status (Global severity Index), the Brief Symptom Index and finally age; gender and education were used as control variables. Data was analysed by looking at associations between the experience of boredom and features of the rehabilitation centre. The findings led to the hypothesis that several characteristics of the day activity programs cause boredom, mainly task characteristics and reward structures. Findings showed that clients were significantly less bored during participation in rehabilitation programs. However programs that led to highly routinized tasks led more easily to experiences of boredom. Tasks with high intrinsic rewards reduced boredom. Clients with particular characteristics were found to be more easily bored i.e. older clients, educated persons experience more feelings of boredom and boredom is more prevalent among people reporting more intense psychiatric complaints. Study Comparisons These three studies were considered from various perspectives and utilizing different research methods. Each was robust in terms of validity and reliability utilizing quantitative and qualitative methodologies. There were commonalities within each of the research studies namely, the interests of patients within their respective healthcare environments and how experiences such as space, surroundings, activity levels, relationships, health state, interactions, and individual characteristics all played a part in precipitating boredom. Ethical dimensions was considered in the first two studies but absent within the third which is a weakness as there was no indication of client informed consent or that it was subject to scrutiny from an ethics committee to ensure that it caused no harm to the client. Each study either highlighted limitations or generalizability which would indicate that the findings may not be truly representative in respect of populations within other healthcare setting. The research proposal submitted within this independent study will potentially add to the body of research already available within the literature. Research Proposal The overall aim of the study is to identify the meaning of boredom within an acute mental health inpatient setting, and clarify the effects boredom on patients during their inpatient stay. This will help critically evaluate the consequences of boredom on patient behaviour and assist in making recommendations on how to alleviate boredom from patients perspective. Therefore, primary research will be utilized to facilitate the critical evaluation of boredom against the literature review and make recommendations on facilitating change within an acute inpatient environment that will improve patient outcomes in relation to alleviating boredom. An in-depth study of the literature has been undertaken which will support the analysis of data utilizing a case study approach. Within the context of the Cause and Effect of Boredom within a Psychiatric Inpatient Unit this research study aims to focus on a number of objectives: Define the term Boredom. Explore patients perceptions of the cause and effects of boredom during their inpatient stay. Critically evaluate the consequences of boredom on patient behaviour. Make recommendations on alleviating boredom from a patients perspective. Research Approach Primary empirical data will be collected utilizing a case study approach. This will allow the researcher to carry out an in-depth study and gain knowledge of patients experiences of boredom and the effect this has on their day to day functioning within the ward. Polit Beck (2010) suggest that case studies provide a wealth of information to enable the researcher to examine relationships between different phenomena. This will afford the researcher the opportunity to examine the relationship between boredom, its causes and consequences. It will also allow the opportunity for patients to express their views on the impact of boredom on them as individuals and provide valuable insights into this phenomenon Research Strategy This study will be carried out using qualitative data collection techniques and analysis. The case study approach adopted will allow the researcher to look real life situations (Descombe 2007). The collection of data from patients will contribute to the real-world views about boredom from an individual perspective. The case study will be approached from a phenomenological perspective. Schwandt (2001) informs that phenomenology affords the respondents the opportunity to voice their day to day experiences. This can be done by using these experiences to elicit data from the transcripts which may have been tape-recorded, and by formulating meaning from the words transcribed, add to the understanding of the experience (Morse, 1994). Sample Selection Sampling is important because it reproduces the characteristics of the defined population (Porter Carter, 2000). A purposeful sample will be utilized for this study as participants will be obtained from a cohort of patients within an acute psychiatric ward. Purposeful sampling is best used for this type of study as it enables the researcher to gain direct expert knowledge and experience of the topic being studied (Rehm, 2010). The patients within the acute ward will be able to provide first-hand knowledge of their experiences of boredom. The study participants will comprise of representatives from an acute inpatient psychiatric ward. All patients who are willing and psychologically able will have the opportunity to take part. There will be no exclusions as all experiences from all patients are relevant. It is anticipated that those patients who are acutely unwell are unlikely to volunteer. The study will be advertised on the ward notice board. The ward population comprises of approximately 24 patients. These participants represent inpatients that have variable psychiatric diagnosis and all should be representative of the population of other acute psychiatric inpatient wards. The sample has been chosen to provide quality of data from knowledgeable patients who are able to articulate their feelings about boredom. Burns Grove (2007) express that it requires few participants in a qualitative study in order to achieve saturation of data which is rich in content. Data Collection Techniques Empirical data will be gathered to explore the concept of boredom and critically analyse its causes and consequences in relation to patients within an acute psychiatric ward. Recommendations on how to alleviate boredom from the patients perspective will also be generated from the data. The most suitable data collection technique will therefore be Focus Group interviews. These will be carried out in groups of 6 and the number of Focus Groups will be dependent on the number of volunteers participating. An open-ended interviewing technique will be utilized to enable the patients to freely articulate their views. Moule Goodman (2008) highlight that using focus groups to acquire this type of data have the benefit of being less time consuming and participants may contribute more within a group situation. In addition Focus Groups are of benefit when dealing with sensitive information, however they can lead to group think where the more vocal members of the group exert more influence over what is said (Speziale Carpenter 2007). The groups will therefore require an expert facilitator to ensure that all participants have the opportunity to take part. The sessions will be audio-taped to provide a more comprehensive account of the patients individual views, as well as a collective description (Bryman Bell, 2003). This avoids writing field notes and allows the researcher to observe the groups non-verbal communication, as well as concentrate on the subject matter. Data Analysis The researcher will code the data to find patterns and extract and formulate themes that emerge from the transcript. This is a form of thematic analysis described by Holloway Wheeler (2002). Speziale Carpenter (2007) purport that to gain knowledge of the data an in-depth structured analysis is necessary. Ethical Issues Ethical issues such as harm to participants, lack of informed consent, privacy and deception should be considered when carrying out a study (Bryman Bell, 2003). The benefits of utilising themes will be that the researcher can analyse the data to eliminate bias, to ensure that it is factual, open and honest. To further eliminate bias two researchers will analyse the data, negotiate the narrative and generate themes which emerge. Furthermore, this will enhance the validity and reliability of the data. To reduce the possibility of disclosure of data the information will be kept in a locked cabinet. To ensure confidentiality is respected as much as possible, participants should be reminded not to disclose information from the group in other settings (Holloway Wheeler, 2002). Adequate information will be given to participants about the study and they should be informed that they can withdraw from the study at any time if they wish (Newll Burnard, 2006). All participants will require si gning an informed consent form in order to participate. An information leaflet will be given to each participant highlighting the purpose of the study. Creswell (1998) suggests that this protects against deception of the purpose and nature of the study. The researcher will seek approval prior to commencement of the study through the Research Ethics committee to ensure that a strict ethical code of conduct is adhered to. This is important when patients are included within a study (Newell Burnard, 2006). Conclusion In conclusion, the topic of boredom was successfully explored within this the literature and valuable learning of the causes and consequences of boredom have been gained. I have learned from carrying out this independent study and by reviewing the literature that nurses have a vital role to play in alleviating boredom within acute settings and the benefits of building on research that has already been done. I now have a better understanding of those clients who have voiced that they are bored within the ward and the many different reasons for this. In addition I have learned how to think critically about a topic, and it has raised my awareness of the underlying principles of research and the benefits and limitations of different approaches. Furthermore, I am able to understand how to utilise various methods of research to study a phenomena, and the differences between quantitative and qualitative data. The knowledge I have acquired from critiquing literature and formulating a Researc h Proposal has extended my knowledge base about the topic chosen by improving my knowledge of research, will enable me to improve nursing practice and patient outcomes. By working in collaboration with my lecturer I have been able to build my confidence in carrying out this independent study due to the support and encouragement I have received during consultations. My time-management and organisational skills have improved by carrying out this research and I have become more structured in undertaking academic work. Although I have had much support, I have learned to work more independently which has enabled me to gain more confidence in carrying out further research in the future as a mental health nurse and educator.

The Profession of Registered Nursing Essay -- Nursing, healthcare, inf

The world is filled with many different types of professional people that help maintain our health status. Registered nurses are one of these important professional people that take care of the sick and maintain health all around the world and in our community. Registered nurses also work to prevent disease , to educate the public about health issues , to enhance public health , and to help support ill patients both physically and mentally. In this essay I will describe and explain what is a registered nurse, education and certification, employment, and professional activities. Registered nurses are licensed by the state in which he or she practices after completing certain training and education. The three educational paths to registered nursing are bachelor’s degree, an associate degree, and a diploma from a approved nursing program. Registered nurses are used mostly everywhere because they are present when doctors cannot assist you immediately and they can prescribe medication. Registered nurses regardless of specialty or work setting, monitor all aspects of patient care including diet and physical activities, and provide advice and emotional support to patients and family members. And most of the places they work include family practices , adult practices , women’s health , pediatrics , acute care and gerontology. Registered nurses work under pressure everyday to treat life conditions such as accidents , heart attacks and strokes. Registered nurses also take care for patients in critical condition , or illness , and they must be able to recognize life threatening problems quickly and assist a patient with care . Registered nurses may suffer from stresses and burnout caused by shift , night work ... ... S. (2011). Development Across the life span. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Haroun, J. M. (2011). INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH CARE SECOND EDITION. New York: Delmar Cengage Learning. Marieb, E. N. (2011). Human anatomy and Physiology seventh edition. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings. Prabhupada, A. B. (2011). THE SCIENCE OF SELF REALIZATION. California: The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust International, Inc. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. (2011, March 5). Retrieved March 5, 2011, from BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS: www.bls.gov Whitney, E. (2011). UNDERSTANDING NUTRITION. Ohio: Cengage Learning. Education-portal. (2010). Private Universities in Florida. Retrieved from: http://education-portal.com/private_universities_in_florida.html eHow. (2010). Catholic Hospice, Inc. Retrieved from: http://www.ehow.com/about 5098909 florida-rn-license-requirements.html

Children and Eating Disorders Essays -- Anorexia Bulimia Weight Essays

Children and Eating Disorders In the past few decades researchers have focused on eating disorders, the causes of these disorders and how they can be treated. However, it has mainly been in the last decade that researchers have started looking at eating disorders in children, the reasons why these disorders are developing at such a young age, and the best recovery program for these young people. To understand this growing problem it is necessary to ask a few important questions: Is there a relationship between family context and parental input and eating disorders? What effect do mothers who suffer or have suffered from an eating disorder have on their children and specifically their daughters’ eating patterns? What is the best way to treat children with eating disorders? TYPES OF CHILDHOOD EATING DISORDERS In an article focusing on an overall description of eating disorders in children, by Bryant-Waugh and Lask (1995), they claim that in childhood there appears to be some variants on the two most common eating disorders found in adults, anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. These disorders include selective eating, food avoidance emotional disorder, and pervasive refusal syndrome. Because so many of the children do not fit all of the requirements for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and eating disorder not otherwise specified, they created a general definition which includes all eating disorders, "a disorder of childhood in which there is an excessive preoccupation with weight or shape, and/or food intake, and accompanied by grossly inadequate, irregular or chaotic food intake" (Byant-Waugh and Lask, 1995). Furthermore they created a more practical diagnostic criteria for childhood onset anorexia nervosa as: (a)... ... and Allied Disciplines 36 (3), 191-202. Edmunds H., Hill AJ. (1999). Dieting and the family context of eating in young adolescent children. International Jounal of Eating Disorders 25(4), 435-40. Kreipe RE. (1995). Eating disorders among children and adolescents. Pediatrics in Review, 16(10), 370-9. Lunt P., Carosella N., Yager J. (1989) Daughters whose mothers have anorexia nervosa: a pilot study of three adolescents. Psychiatric Medicine, 7(3), 101-10. Marchi M., Cohen P. (1990). Early childhood eating behaviors and adolescent eating disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(1), 112-7. Smolak L., Levine MP., Schermer R. (1999). Parental input and weight concerns among elementary school children. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25(3), 263- 71.

Admissions Essay - Potential to Contribute :: essays research papers

Risks are the essence of life. In the beginning, they are our instinct. But as we get older and gain a greater consciousness of the world around us, somewhere along the way we are presented with failure, at that point, many people try to eliminate most risks from their life. I come from a family that has had to take major risks in order to bring me to the place I am today. My parents grew up in Odessa, Ukraine, which was once a part of the Soviet Union. As children of Holocaust survivors, they were dedicated to giving their children an opportunity to enjoy freedoms of an open society, the United States. And so my parents came to this country with me, then four year-old son in November of 1990 against the advice of all their friends. They had decided that leaving Soviet Union was their only true hope of preserving our identity and raising a family outside of repressions and fear. They were risk takers and they sought a better, freer life for themselves and for their children. That was their generation. And now I am too at a critical juncture of my life, one that is quite different from my parents, but also full of difficult choices nonetheless. Dedicating the next two or three years of my life to a legal education is a risk. Certainly, paying for law school will be a hardship. However, I must also question whether my study of the law will give me the intellectual fulfillment I seek in my college life. This is an inquiry I?ve made to myself countless times. I now know that, given my varied experiences and the direction I?ve found myself taking, law school is the only true option. My parents and grandparents? experiences have left a mark on my life and I will not feel fulfilled until I am able to help others that have been in similarly trying and difficult situations. In fact, one of the ways I hope to do that is with my talent of being polylingual. Learning languages has always been very important to me and it has given me many advantages and helped in my personal growth. If I didn?t know the four languages of English, Russian, French, and Hebrew as I do today, then I would probably be a very different person. Even though my native language of Russian wasn?t something chosen by me, it is something I?

History of the Doctrine of the Holy Spirit Essay

The occurrence of doctrinal formulation of the Christian faith did not happen all at once. In one point or another, one doctrine will be the focuse while sometimes, another one will be spotted which means that all doctrines have the same or equal attention given by the chirstian. In this case, it is understood that the Doctrine of the Holy Spirit like other doctrines have no special attentions but also took chance in being noticed. During the early years of the century, this doctrine failed to attract attention specially the formal definition of the dogma. There are proofs that it has given importance, however, these importance are not the same as that of the formal teachings. During the early existence of churches, the Holy Spirit was acknowledge and witnessed through baptismal formula and in the Apostles’ Creed. Also, when we use the threefold name, the father, the son and the Holy Spirit, we show that there is a practice and that the presence of the Holy Spirit is indeed acknowledged. But then, when it comes to literature, the Holy Spirit is not prominent enough and given little importance. Montanism brought the subject into life and gave prominence to the Holy Spirit. This movement appeared in Phrygia by Priscilla and Maximilla. They announced the coming of anew period wherein there will be new revelations from God and called the whole period Paraclete and themselves as the prophers. The high morality being emphasized in this movement attracted others to join hence, the two preached about the nearness of death and the end of the world. This movement is more of an orthodox one and in contrast of Gnosticism. However, because of several issues, the movement was rejected and the doctrine of the Holy Spirit remained undeveloped and with no formulation. It was Monarchianism which taught more about the fact that the Son was the expression of the father. Because of this, the Church was forced to know the relationship between the Spirit and the Son, as well as to the father. There it was revealed that God reveals himself in different forms which are three roles that he plays as God. It was Sabellanism which made a major error in interpreting the trinity and the Holy Spirit. Aside from this error is the Arian controversy which is an anti-Trinitarian and does not agree with the Trinitarian views. The controversy in Nicea had to be brought into the Council of Constantinople. However, in this place another controversy came out which even made a great misunderstanding of the Doctrine. The people who were already confused started to disbelief the Doctrine and the Holy Spirit and one Bishop from Constantinople claimed that the Spirit is indeed a creature made subordinate to the Son. The orthodox on this movement preaches that the Holy Spirit is Divine and then the Son is not Divine of Vice Versa. The creed was studied by the Council and pointed out that the creed made use of a term that will avoid another term â€Å"of the substance†. Hence this discovery did counter what the above movement had mentioned about the divinity of the Trinity. However, despite of the fact that the questions regarding the Deity were all cleared and understood by many, there are still questions about the importance and the mystery of the Spirit and its relation to the Son and the Father. In the west part, this one was the question raised by the people and two terms were used to describe the relationship between the Son to the Father and the Spirit. Generation was used to describe the relation between the father and the son while Procession was used between the Son and the Father. In this period, three things were settled concerning the Holy Spirit and the Doctrine. Before Reformation, the attention of the church was focused into the Spirit alone but during the Reformation, the attention of the people and the church was focused on the works of the Holy Spirit. It was emphasized the Holy Spirit’s work has something to do with regenerating man. Several creeds and documents which grew out through reformation just like other periods, there are oppositions and exceptions. The church history saw the formulation of the orthodox doctrine of the Holy Spirit first followed by the definition of the Holy Spirit and its relations to the father and the son through the councils and it was developed during Reformation. It was not an easy way because in ever discovery comes another opposition but in the end, the mystery of the Holy Spirit became known to the people. However, in this life, maybe it is how one sees the power of the Holy Spirit that makes its application and understanding worthwhile. References Ryrie, Charles C. â€Å"The Holy Spirit†

Chemical Aspects of Life Paper

Chemical Aspects of life HYPOTHESIS in this section i will be discussing my thoughts of the chemical aspects of life. Explaining what my hypotheses are, for what chemicals are in which substances and what affects the reagents will have on them. Protein testing will be performed on 2 substances,egg albumin and gelatin using Biuret's solution. If biuret's solution is added to egg albumin then the egg albumin will change colors. If biuret's solution is added to gelatin then there will be only the color of the biuret's solution in there.When testing for lipids using the grease spot test three substances will be left to dry on a brown paper bag square lipids will appear in the form of a stain on the paper bag. If oil is left to dry on a paper bag then very evident stain will appear. If milk is left to dry on a paper bag then a residue will be left on top of the bag. When testing for lipids Using Sudan IV an oil and water test will be conducted, and an milk and water test will be done. If oil and water are tested using sudan IV then the oil will mix with the sudan IV. If milk and water are tested using Sudan IV then the Sudan Iv will not mix with either.When testing for carbohydrates benedict's solution will be used and Hcl will be used as an additive to alter results. If benedict's is added to glucose then the solution will change color. If benedict's solution is added to sucrose then the solution will change color. If benedict's solution is added to sucrose and Hcl there will be a more drastic color change. If benedict's solution is added to milk then there will be a slight color change. If benedict's solution is added to Hcl and milk there will be a drastic color change. If benedict's solution is added to starch then there will be a color change.If benedict's solution is added to starch and Hcl then there will be a more drastic color change. When testing for carbohydrates using iodine a porcelain spot plate will be used to better see color changes. If iodine is ad ded to a starch solution then it will change color. If iodine is added to water then the iodine will become dilute. PROCEDURE Procedure: You will be testing for the presence of the following subtances: proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. The carbohydrates will include monocaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), and polysaccharides (starch).Protein test Background: Proteins give color reactions with certain reagents. The compounds that give rise to these colors are formed not by the whole protein molecule but by certain amino acids present in the protein. Biuret solution will be used for the test. Biuret solution is a blue solution that turns a violet color in the presence of proteins this color change occurs when the Biurets reacts with the amino groups found in the amino acids that are the building blocks of proteins. add 3ml of dilute egg albumin solution to a test tube. Add biuret's solutiong drop by drop.Stop if a violet color is obtained. Do not continue until a blue c olor occurs repeat the test with gelatin. Record your results. Lipid test Background: Lipids are insoluble in water but are soluble in fat solvents such as ether, acetone, and carbon tetrachloride. The simplest lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Lipids will remain on a brown paper bag after the water in the solution has evaporated, this will make the bag somewhat transparent. Secondly, a dye test will be done. In this test, dark red sudan IV will be used.Sudan IV is not soluble in water, but is soluble in lipids. You will be observing the distribution of dye in this test. Procedure: with a medicine dropper, add a drop of salad oil to the corner of a brown paper bag. To the opposite corner, add a drop of water. To one more corner, add a drop of milk. Let the fluids evaporate and then examine each spot by holding the paper to the light look for areas of transperency. Record your results Procedure: Add 3ml of water to a test tube. Add 1ml of oil to the same test tube. DO NOT SHAKE. Now add 2 drops of sudan IV. AGAIN, DO NOT SHAKE.Observe the distribution of the dye with respect to the water and oil. Record your results. Repeat this test using milk instead of oil. Record your results. CARBOHYDRATE TESTS: Background: sugar starch and cellulose are common examples of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are made up of the base elements c, h, and o in a 1:2:1 ratio. The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides (simple sugars such as glucose). Monosaccharides have just one carbon ring and are the building blocks of larger sugar molecules. Disaccharides, like sucrose, have two carbon rings. They are formed when two monosaccharides join together.Examples include: Maltose (glucose + glucose); Lactose (glucose + galactose); and sucrose (glucose + fructose). Polysaccharides have three or more carbon rings. Starch is an example of a polysaccharide. Procedure: put 3ml of benedict's solution in a test tube. Add 2ml of 5% glucose solution. Carefully place the tube i n a boiling water bath for 2 minutes. Remove the tube amd allow it to cool. Record the color reoeat the test with 3ml of benedict's solution and 2ml of 5% sucrose solution. Again, place the tube in the boiling water bath for 2 minutes, remove and cool.Record the color put 2ml of the 5% sucrose solution to a test tube. This time add several drops of hydrochloric acid. Place the tube in the boiling water bath for 2 minutes. Remove and immediately add 3ml of benedict's solution return it to the water bath for an addition 2 minutes. Remove and record the color put 3ml of benedict's solution in a test tube. Add 2ml of milk. Again, place this into the boiling water bath for 2 minutes, remove and cool. Record the color. Again put 2ml of milk to a test tube. This time add several drops of hydrochloric acid.Place the tube in the boiling water bath for 2 minutes. Remove and immediately add 3ml of benedict's solution. Return it to the water bath for an additional 2 minutes. Remove and record t he color. Put 3ml of benedicts solution in a test tube. Add 2ml of starch solution. Place the tube once again into the boiling water bath for 2 minutes, remove and cool. Record the color. Again, put 2ml of starch into a test tube. This time add several drops of hydrochloric acid. Place the tube in the boiling water bath for 2 minutes. Remove and immediately add 3ml of benedicts solution return it to the water bath for an additional 2 minutes.Remove and record the color. Starch test: if a poly saccharide such as starch is present in a solution and iodine is added, the iodine ion will lodge itself in the polysaccharide chain and give it black-blue color. If iodine is added to a solution turn black-blue then starch is present. If the solution remains the color of iodine, reddish-orange, there is no starch present. Procedure: place a few drops of the starch solution into one well of a porcelain spot plate. Place a few drops of water into another well of the same plate. Add several drops of the iodine solution to both wells.Record the color of each. DATA When testing protein, the egg albumin solution turned dark violet when biuret solution was added, biuret's solution was concentrated at the bottom. When testing gelatin for protein biuret's solution turned the solution dark violet, with biuret's solution concentrated at the bottom, and faded to completely clear. 5 drops and 4 drops were added to each test respectively. When performing the lipid test, a drop of oil left a large dark stain, water didn't not leave a stain yet it left the paper warped, and milk left a faint stain and a glossy residue on top.When testing for lipids with sudan IV the oil stayed on top of the water and the sudan IV distributed evenly throughout the oil. When milk was tested, water mixed evenly with the milk, but the sudan IV only mixed into the very top portion of the mixture. When testing carbohydrates the 5% glucose solution changed to a cloudy red color. The 5% sucrose solution did not change color at all, and the sucrose Hcl changed to a greenish brown color. When milk was tested the solution changed to a yellow green color, it also looked chunky. When milk and hcl was tested it changed to a cloudy blue with chunks of white on top. he starch solution did not change color when the benedict's solution was added, and Hcl did not alter the results in the next test. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS throughout the chemical aspects of life lab i have learned a variety of things including testing methods, what reagents are, and some general information about HCL and the contents of various substances. When testing proteins i have discovered the both egg albumin and gelatin both contain protein. During testing for lipids, i've learned that milk contains lipids, although a faint amount there are some present. Oil and Milk both contain lipids. Oil as expected, and milk as expected.When testing For lipids using Sudan IV the oil sat ontop of the water and the sudan IV only mixed wit h it, but surprises came in the next test when water and milk mixed evenly, but Sudan IV only stayed to the top portion of the mixture. Testing for reducing sugars has led me to believe the HCL breaks down sugars to a simpler form, as it altered results for sucrose and milk. Glucose was already a reducing sugar as i found out after testing and sucrose was not, but after adding HCL to sucrose, the results dramatically changed so much so as from going to light blue in the first test to greenish brown in the second sucrose test.Milk seemed to have traces of reducing sugars but results were unclear, so HCL was added and the solution went from chunky yellow in the first milk test, to a chunky cloudy blue in the second test. Starch was found without any reducing sugars, if HCL was present or not. The solution was opaque blue because of benedict's solution. While testing carbohydrates with test tubes and fancy heating and a bunch of chemicals is fun and all, it can just as simply be done w ith iodine using a porcelain spot plate.Iodine turns a dark color when in the presence of carbohydrates such as it did when in a starch solution and it was good old diluted brown-orange in water. MATERIALS Dilute egg albumin solution gelatin distilled water whole milk oil 5% sucrose 5% glucose starch solution glass stirrers biuret solution sudan IV benedict's solution hydrochloric acid iodine pan of soapy water test tube clamps test tube brushes paper towels test tubes medicine droppers porcelain spot plate safety goggles test tube racks graduated cylnders beakers hot plate brown paper bag squares

Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh Essay

FIRST OF ALL I LIKE TO SHOW GREAT RESPECT TO OUR ALMIGHTY FOR GIVING ME AN ABILITY TO CARRY ON THIS TYPE OF ASSIGNMENT ON THE WAY TO COMPLETION AND FINALIZATION TO MY SUCCESS. THEN I WOULD LIKE TO THANK OUR HONORABLE TEACHER SHAMSHAD CHOWDHURY FOR GIVING ME THE ACTUAL IDEAS AND CLUES FOR THE ASSIGNMENT. ESPECIALLY THANKS TO THE AUTHORITY OF SHANTO-MARIAM UNIVERSITY OF CREATIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR SELECTING THIS KIND OF SUBJECT THAT REALLY WOULD BE A PIONEER STEP ON OUR FUTURE AND TO MAKE A GREAT PLAN FOR THE FURTHER ACTIVITIES AND TO THE NEAR NEXT 1 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh. 1. Introduction : BANGLADESH IS QUITE RICH IN ETHNIC CULTURE. THERE ARE ABOUT THIRTY-FIVE ETHNIC COMMUNITIES LIVING IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE COUNTRY. THE MAJOR ETHNIC COMMUNITIES ARE CHAKMA, MURMA, GARO, SANTAL, HAJONG, TIPRA, KHASI, MURANG, SHENDHU, PANKO ETC. THEY STRUGGLE TO MAINTAIN THEIR LIFE STYLE, CULTURE AND PROTECT DISTINCT RELIGIOUS BELIEFS FROM THE INFLUENCE OF THE DOMINANT CULTURE AND RELIGIONS. IN THE NORTH AND NORTHWESTERN BELT OF BANGLADESH A NUMBER OF ETHNIC COMMUNITIES LIVE WHO STILL HAVE TO STRUGGLE HARD TO SUSTAIN THEIR ORIGINAL CULTURE AND TRADITIONAL HERITAGE. THE ADIVASIS IN THIS REGION COMPRISES OF SEVERAL GROUPS SANTAL, ORAON, MUNDA, MAHALI, MAHATO, MALPAHARA ETC. AMONG THE ETHNIC PEOPLE IN THE NORTH AND NORTHWESTERN BELT OF BANGLADESH SANTALS ARE LARGEST IN NUMBER. BUT THERE IS NO ACCURATE AND RELIABLE STATISTICS REGARDING THEIR ACTUAL POPULATION. THERE IS ALSO A GREAT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL FIGURES AND ESTIMATES. ACCORDING TO THE GOVERNMENT CENSUS OF 1991, THE ADIVASI POPULATION WAS ESTIMATED 3,14,337 IN 16 ADMINISTRATIVE DISTRICT OF THE RAJSHAHI DIVISION. BUT AS CLAIMED BY AN INDIGENOUS COMMUNITY LEADER, BADLA ORAON OF DINAJPUR ADIVASI ACADEMY, THE. NUMBER OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLE IN RAJSHAI DIVISION WAS 3,222,000 WAY BACK IN 1984. A SURVEY REPORT REVEALS THAT THE TOTAL POPULATION OF SANTAL IS 143932 IN DINAJPUR, RAJSHAHI, BOGRA, PABNA AND SOME OTHER AREAS OF BANGLADESH. ACCORDING TO THE OTHER SOURCES, THE TOTAL NUMBER OF SANTALS ARE MUCH HIGHER THAN ESTIMATED. MOST OF THE SCHOLARS ALSO QUESTIONED THE AUTHENTICITY OF THE NUMERICAL DATA. IN THEIR OPINION, THE CENSUS TAKES LANGUAGE AS THE BASIS FOR IDENTIFYING ANY PERSON AS BENGALI OR INDIGENOUS. THEY HAVE ALSO ALLEGED THAT THE EXISTING POLICY IS TO SHOW THE NUMBER LOWER THAN THE ACTUAL NUMBER. 2 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 2. Historical Background of the Santals SINCE HOW LONG THE SANTALS LANDED IN THE TERRITORY OF PRESENT BANGLADESH, IS NOT PRECISELY KNOWN. SOME BELIEVE THAT THE KHERWARS REACHED THE LAND OF BENGAL IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE FIRST CLASHES WITH THE INVADING ARYAN TRIBES (2500 B. C. ). WITH EVERY PROBABILITY THE SANTALS LANDED IN BANGLADESH WITH THEIR ACTUAL ETHNIC IDENTITY, NOT AFTER 1000 B. C. IT IS PROBABLE THAT THE SANTALS SCATTERED THROUGHOUT BENGAL AT THE TIME OF THE MUSLIM INVASION OF THIS REGION DURING THE LAST DECADES OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY OR AT THE BEGINNING OF THIRTEENTH CENTURY. IN THE WORDS OF FR. LUIZI PUSSETTO: â€Å"THE SANTALS RETIRED PROGRESSIVELY TOWARD MORE CALM REGIONS OR WHERE IT WAS MORE EASY TO DEFEND [THEMSELVES] FROM THE INVADERS†¦ † IN LATER TIMES, WITH THE HISTORIC SANTAL REVOLUTION IN 1855 UNDER THE BRITISH COLONIAL RULE IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT, WHEN 30,000 THOUSAND SANTALS ARE BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN KILLED, IT IS BEYOND ANY DOUBT THAT MANY OF THE SANTALS WERE DISPERSED INTO DISTANT LANDS AND GEOGRAPHICALLY ISOLATED TERRITORIES. MANY OF THEM EVEN CROSSED THE RIVER GANGES AND END UP IN THE EAST, THE PART OF PRESENT BANGLADESH. MANY THINK THAT THE EARLY SANTALS CAME TO NORTH BENGAL IN SEARCH FOR JOB OPPORTUNITIES, ESPECIALLY WHEN THE RAILWAY TRACKS WERE UNDER CONSTRUCTION during the British rule in the second half of the 19th century. This may be one of THE REASONS THAT MOST SANTALS IN BANGLADESH ARE FOUND SETTLING ON BOTH SIDES OF THE RAILWAY LINES FROM NORTH TO SOUTH. 2. 1 THE NAME â€Å"SANTAL†: REGARDING THE NAME SANTAL, OPINIONS DIFFER AMONG THE SCHOLARS. FOR SKREFSRUD, THE NAME SANTAL IS A CORRUPTION OF SAONTAR, AND WAS ADOPTED BY THE TRIBE AFTER THEIR SOJOURN FOR SEVERAL GENERATIONS IN THE COUNTRY AROUND SAONT IN MIDNAPUR. W. B. OLDHAM OPINED THAT SANTAL IS AN ABBREVIATION OF SAMANTAWALA, WHICH HAS ITS ETYMOLOGY FROM SANSKRIT SAMANTA, ANOTHER NAME GIVEN TO THE COUNTRY AROUND SAONT. O’MALLEY IS OF THE OPINION THAT SANTAL IS AN ENGLISH FORM ADOPTED FROM HINDI WHICH CORRESPONDS WITH THE FORM SAOTAL USED BY THE BENGALI SPEAKING PEOPLE. MOST ANTHROPOLOGISTS AGREE THAT SANTAL IS A NAME GIVEN TO THIS TRIBE BY NON-SANTALS. HOWEVER, SANTALS PREFER TO CALL THEMSELVES HOR MEANING â€Å"HUMAN BEING OR PERSON. † FOR THE SANTALS THE CONCEPT HOR BEARS A RICH CONNOTATION TO MEAN A PERSON WITH QUALITIES OF INTELLECT, OF KNOWLEDGE, OF WISDOM; THEY REFER THEMSELVES AS A TRIBE WITH DIGNITY AND FULL HUMAN POTENTIALITY. THE SANTALS ARE PROUD OF THEIR IDENTITY THAT DEFINES THE TRAITS OF SOLIDARITY AND UNIQUENESS AS A GROUP. 3 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 2. 2 ORIGIN, RACE, AND LANGUAGE: AS TO THE â€Å"ORIGIN† OF THE SANTALS, VERY LITTLE IS KNOWN FOR CERTAIN. THE SANTALS HAVE NO RECORDED HISTORY. LIKE OTHER ANCIENT SOCIETIES, SANTALS HAVE TRIED TO EXPLORE THE MYSTERIES OF CREATION, HISTORY AND LIFE BY MEANS OF MYTHS AND LEGENDS. FOLLOWING THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL DATA, SOME AUTHORS CLASSIFY SANTALS AS PRE-DRAVIDIAN AND OTHERS AS PROTO-AUSTROLOIDS; AND OTHERS AS ABORIGINALS OF THE NORTHWEST. THUS, THE OPINIONS IN THIS RESPECT ARE VERY DISCORDANT. THE SANTALS DO HAVE THEIR OWN MYTHOLOGY OF CREATION AND MANY BELIEVE THAT THEY ALL HAVE COME FROM PILCU HARAM AND PILCU BUDHI, WHICH IS LIKE ADAM AND EVE IN THE BIBLE. SANTALI IS THE MOTHER TONGUE SPOKEN BY THE SANTALS. IT IS A MUNDA LANGUAGE OF THE KHERWAR GROUP THAT BELONGS TO THE MUNDA-MON-KHMER OR ‘AUSTRO-ASIATIC’ SUB-FAMILY. BUT THERE ARE OTHER DIFFERENT OPINIONS ON THIS TOO. ACCORDING TO N. PRASAD, â€Å"SANTALI IS THE RICHEST DIALECT AMONG ALL THE TRIBAL DIALECTS OF BIHAR. † 2. 3 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION: IN BANGLADESH, THE SANTALS ARE FOUND MOSTLY IN NORTH BENGAL (NORTHERN PART OF BANGLADESH) ESPECIALLY IN THE THEN GREATER DISTRICTS OF DINAJPUR, RANGPUR, BOGRA, AND RAJSHAHI. ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1881, THE SANTALS RESULTED PRESENT IN THE DISTRICT OF KHULNA, PABNA AND CHITTAGONG IN THE SOUTH. MANY SAY THAT THE SANTALS, WHO ARE IN SYLHET, ARE THE ONES WHO MIGRATED FROM THE DISTRICTS MENTIONED ABOVE AND CAME HERE MAINLY TO WORK IN THE TEA GARDENS AS LABORERS. IN SHORT, THE SANTALS OF BANGLADESH ARE ALMOST ALL DERIVED FROM THOSE EMIGRATED FROM THE SANTAL PARGANA IN INDIA AND NOTHING DISTINGUISHES THEM FROM THOSE WHO ARE STILL LIVING THERE, WITH THE EXCEPTION, PERHAPS OF THE USE OF BANGLA WORDS THAT ARE SANTALIZED. IN RECENT TIMES SOME OF THE BANGLADESHI SANTALS ALSO STARTED GOING ABROAD TAKING EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES. 4 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 3. THE WORLDVIEW THE SANTALS ARE SIMPLE AND UNSOPHISTICATED PEOPLE. LIKE ANY OTHER PEOPLE, THE SANTALS HAVE DEVELOPED THEIR OWN WORLDVIEW, A SYSTEM SUITED TO DEAL WITH THE BASIC PROBLEMS OF LIFE AND ITS MEANING. THEY HAVE PERCEIVED THE ENIGMA AND THE BASIC DICHOTOMY OF HUMAN EXISTENCE—LIFE AND DEATH, GOOD AND EVIL FROM THEIR OWN PERSPECTIVE. FOR THE SANTALS, LIFE, HEALTH, WEALTH, PROSPERITY, HAPPINESS, TRIBAL SOLIDARITY, RELIGIOUS BELIEF, MORES, ETC., ARE â€Å"GOOD†; AND DEATH, ILLNESS, POVERTY, MISFORTUNE, INJURY ETC. ARE â€Å"EVIL†. THEIR RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES IS MEDIATED THROUGH THEIR CULTURE AND ARE EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF SYMBOLS, METAPHORS, MYTH, LEGENDS, FOLKLORE, SONGS, CULT, RITUALS AND SO ON. THE Santals consider Th kur Jiu ? (Life Giver) or Cando Baba (Sun Father) or Marang BURU (GREAT MOUNTAIN) AS THE SOURCE OF ALL â€Å"GOOD†; WHILE IT IS THE â€Å"EVIL EYE†, THE â€Å"evil mouth† and the b ric’ bonga ? or malevolent spirits who cause harms in human LIFE. THEREFORE, WHILE ACKNOWLEDGING THE SUPREME BEING, THEY ALSO PROPITIATE THE. BONGA IN AN ATTEMPT TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS OF SUFFERING, SICKNESS, AND OTHER CRISIS. ALL THESE QUITE OFTEN LEAD THEM TO SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS AND GIVE RISE TO PROMINENCE OF THE FEAR OF THE BONGA. FOR THE SANTALS EVERY NEWBORN CHILD COMING FROM THE INVISIBLE AND SHADOWY WORLD NEEDS TO BE PURIFIED, IDENTIFIED AND INTRODUCED TO THE SANTAL SOCIETY. MUCH OF SUCH REALITIES ARE EXPRESSED THROUGH THE RITUAL CEREMONIES PERFORMED AFTER A CHILD IS born. The ritual of the janam ch ti r? ? (birth purification and name-giving ritual) is ONE EXAMPLE WHERE THESE ASPECTS ARE ENACTED THROUGH BATHING, SHAVING THE HEAD OF. THE BABY, DIVINING OF ARWA RICE (UNBOILED RICE) GRAINS AND WELCOMING OF THE BABY BY THE COMMUNITY. THE DEATH PURIFICATION CEREMONIES LIKE FUNERAL RITES OF BHANDAN, OR MORA KARAM (AFTER-DEATH CELEBRATION) PROVIDE FURTHER DETAILS OF THE SANTAL-BELIEF SYSTEM THAT THE DEAD PERSON GOES BACK TO THE SAME SPIRIT-WORLD OF LIFE FROM WHERE HE/SHE HAD COME AS A BABY AND REMAINS DEFILED AND DEFILING, FOR WHICH REASON NOT ONLY THE FAMILY THAT NEEDS PURIFICATION, BUT THE VERY RETURN OF THE DECEASED. PERSON TO ITS ORIGINAL STATE OR SHADOWY-WORLD IS ALREADY DEFILING BECAUSE IT IS A TRIBELESS-STATE, CONDEMNED AND SINFUL STATE AND BECAUSE IT HAS BEEN CREATED FOR THE PUNISHMENT OF THE SINS OF GREED AND PRIDE. HENCE, THE DECEASED PERSON NEEDS TO BE BROUGHT BACK 5 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh SPIRITUALLY TO HIS/HER OWN FAMILY AND IS INSTALLED AS AN INVISIBLE MEMBER AS HAPRAM (ANCESTOR). THE DECEASED, ALTHOUGH INVISIBLE, REMAIN A PERMANENT MEMBER OF THE FAMILY AND ARE REMEMBERED AND RESPECTED DURING ALL THEIR FAMILY OCCASIONS. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT â€Å"WHEN [A] HUMAN BEING BECOMES PERFECTLY FREE FROM ALL GREED AND PRIDE THIS STATE WILL BE REMOVED AND THAT WILL BE THE NEW CREATION, WHICH IN CHRISTIANITY MAY BE COMPARED WITH THE STATE OF SALVATION. FOR THE SANTALS, THERE IS NO CLEAR DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE SACRED AND THE PROFANE, RELIGIOUS AND NON-RELIGIOUS, SPIRITUAL AND THE MATERIAL AREAS OF LIFE. ANIMALS AND THE MATERIAL WORLD ARE AT THE DISPOSAL OF HUMAN BEINGS FOR THEIR SELF-PRESERVATION AND WELL-BEING. MOREOVER, SANTAL-LIFE IS CLOSELY RELATED TO NATURE AND TO THE WHOLE OF CREATION. LAND AND FOREST REMAIN UNITED WITH SANTAL-IDENTITY AND ARE VERY MUCH REFLECTED IN THEIR LIVES, LOVE, POETRY, SONGS, DANCE AND MUSIC. THE SANTALS, FOR EXAMPLE, ADDRESS TO THE â€Å"SUPREME BEING† AS CANDO BABA (SUN FATHER) AND THE STARS. TOO HAVE DIFFERENT NAMES. ACCORDING TO ARCHER, â€Å"ALTHOUGH FIELDS, HOUSES, MEN AND WOMEN SEEM TO CONSTITUTE A SANTAL VILLAGE, SANTALS REGARD THEM AS AT MOST A PORTION OF THEIR TOTAL WORLD. † 6 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 4. THE SANTALS IN THEIR SOCIO-CULTURAL REALITIES 4. 1 THE SANTAL-VILLAGE: THE SANTAL VILLAGE IS A PATTERN OF SANTAL LIVING AND IT IS THE MOST TRADITIONAL AND ANCIENT INSTITUTION, WHICH CRYSTALLIZES THE WHOLE SYSTEM OF SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND RITUAL STRUCTURES. IT COMES INTO EXISTENCE THROUGH THE SPECIAL DISPENSATION OF THE BONGA AND IS SANCTIFIED BY THEIR BLESSINGS. THE PRESENCE OF. DIFFERENT CLANS IN A VILLAGE DEMONSTRATES THE BEAUTY OF A COMMUNITY LIVING AND OBVIOUSLY THE DEMOCRATIC CHARACTER OF THE VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION ITSELF IS A SIGN OF INCREDIBLE RICHNESS OF THE SANTAL SOCIETAL DEALING AND LIVING. A SANTAL VILLAGE IS DEMARCATED WITH AN IMPLICIT BOUNDARY SO THAT IT MAY REMAIN FREE FROM OUTSIDE INTERFERENCE OF EVIL SPIRITS. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT QUARRELS AMONG FAMILIES AND GROUPS IN THE VILLAGE, NATURAL CALAMITIES, SICKNESS, EPIDEMICS, ETC. , ARE CAUSED BY LACK OF BALANCE BETWEEN THE FORCES OF GOOD AND EVIL. 4. 2 SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SANTAL VILLAGE: THE PRIMARY FEATURE OF EVERY SANTAL. VILLAGE IS THE â€Å"MANJHI COUNCIL† OR THE VILLAGE COUNCIL HEADED BY A MANJHI (HEADMAN). THE VILLAGE COUNCIL IS THE REPRESENTATIVE BODY OF THE COMMUNITY CONSISTING OF SEVEN OFFICIALS, NAMELY: MANJHI, PARANIK (A DEPUTY HEADMAN), JOG MANJHI (AN OVERSEER OF THE VILLAGE ON MORAL ISSUES), JOG PARANIK (ASSISTANT TO JOG MANJHI), GODET’ (A MESSENGER), NAEKE (A village priest), and his assistant is Kud m Naeke?. These OFFICIALS IN FACT ARE THE SERVANTS, NOT THE MASTERS OF THE village and their role is purely functional. The M njhi? remains as the overall LEADER OF THE VILLAGE COUNCIL AND PRESIDES OVER THE VILLAGE MEETING BUT WITH THE. ACCEPTED PRINCIPLE THAT NO ONE OVERRULES ANY ONE ELSE. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNCIL ON THE OTHER HAND, ARE CATEGORICALLY DIVIDED AMONG THE MEMBERS IN ORDER TO AVOID ANY OVERLAPPING. THE COUNCIL MEMBERS PERFORM THEIR FUNCTIONS IN ACCORDANCE WITH THEIR TRIBAL CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS. THE PATTERN OF THE VILLAGE GOVERNANCE OF THE SANTALS IS MOSTLY DEMOCRATIC IN CHARACTER LIKE ANY OTHER DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTION. HOWEVER IN PRESENT TIME, WITH THE INTRODUCTION OF THE GOVERNMENT-SPONSORED UNION PARISAD (LOCAL ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL) THE SOCIAL CONTROL OF THE TRADITIONAL m njhi ? council of the Santals is mostly undermined. 7 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh FOLLOWING THE PATRIARCHAL PATTERN, THE MANJHI (LEADER) OF THE VILLAGE FOR THE SANTALS, IS ALWAYS A MALE. THE TITLE OF THE MANJHI IS GENERALLY HEREDITARY AND IT IS PASSED ON PATRILINEALLY. NOW-A-DAYS, THE MALE MEMBERS OF THE VILLAGE MAY ELECT OR EVEN SELECT THEIR OWN HEADMAN UPON COMMON CONSENSUS. THE TERM OF OFFICE IS INDEFINITE BUT CAN BE ALTERED BY GENERAL AGREEMENT ACCORDING TO THE NEED. ALTHOUGH THE OFFICE OF THE HEADMAN IS VOLUNTARY AND HONORARY IN NATURE, THE MEMBERS OF THE MANJHI COUNCIL ARE RESPONSIBLE TO THE COMMUNITY FOR THE SMOOTH RUNNING OF THE VILLAGE PARTICULARLY FOR SOCIAL MATTERS. 4. 3 THE CLANS: SANTALS ARE ENDOGAMIC AS A PEOPLE BECAUSE THEY CANNOT GET MARRIED OUTSIDE THEIR TRIBE, BUT THEY ARE EXOGAMIC AS CLAN BECAUSE THEY CANNOT BE married between the same clan (p ris? ). Traditionally the Santals used to have FOSTERED A TOTAL OF TWELVE CLANS BUT UNFORTUNATELY IN THE COURSE OF HISTORY ONE HAS BEEN MISSING. THE CLANS ARE: 1) BASKEY, 2) BESRA, 3) CORE, 4) HASDAK’, 5) Hembrom, 6) Kisku, 7) Marandi, 8) Murmu, 9) P uria, 10) Soren, 11) Tudu, and ? 12) BEDEA (THE LOST ONE). MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE CLANS ARE TO REGULATE MARRIAGE, INHERITANCE, SUCCESSION AND AFFILIATION (ALI 1988; ALSO HOSSAIN 2000). ONE BECOMES A CLAN MEMBER BY BIRTH. IT IS SAID THAT THESE CLANS ARE HIERARCHICALLY ORDERED ON THE BASIS OF OCCUPATION, LIKE: Kisku raja (king), Marandi Kipis r ? (wealthy or richer), Murmu Th kur ? (priest), Soren Sip hi ? (warrior), Tudu M nd ri ? ? ? (musician), and so on and so forth. HOWEVER, ACCORDING TO THE RESEARCHER, THESE OCCUPATIONAL HIERARCHIES OF STATUS DO NOT HAVE ANY IMPACT ON THE SANTALS IN DAILY LIVES. 4. 4 FAMILY AND MARRIAGE: FAMILY IS THE PRIMARY UNIT OF HUMAN SOCIETY. THE FAMILY AMONG THE SANTALS CAN BE TERMED AS OF BIOLOGICAL, JOINT, AND EXTENDED. A. HUSBAND, HIS WIFE AND THEIR UNMARRIED CHILDREN FORM PART OF THE BIOLOGICAL OR NUCLEAR FAMILY. A HUSBAND, HIS WIFE AND HIS MARRIED AND UNMARRIED SONS AND DAUGHTERS AND SOMETIMES HIS OLD PARENTS, BROTHER AND HIS FAMILY FORM PART OF THE JOINT FAMILY OR EXTENDED FAMILY TYPE. ACCORDING TO THE SANTALS, MARRIAGE IS AN UNION BETWEEN A MAN AND A WOMAN, WHICH IS SOCIALLY RECOGNIZED; CULTURALLY AND RELIGIOUSLY IT ALLOWS THE COUPLE TO LIVE IN A FAMILY. A SANTAL MARRIAGE CAN BE DESCRIBED ALSO AS A LEGAL TRANSFER OF DEPENDENCY OF THE 8 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh BRIDE, FROM HER FATHER’S FAMILY TO THE GROOM’S FAMILY. BY THIS TRANSFER, THE GROOM’S FAMILY DOES NOT ONLY ASSUME GUARDIANSHIP BUT ALSO ASSUMES CONTROL OVER ALL HER AFFAIRS. THROUGH MARRIAGE THE BRIDE LOOSES HER PATERNAL LEGAL IDENTITY AND ACQUIRES THE IDENTITY OF THE GROOM’S FAMILY. IN THE INSTITUTIONAL SENSE, MARRIAGE IS THE PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN A MAN AND A WOMAN REGULATED BY CUSTOMARY LAWS THAT ENHANCE LEGAL UNION BETWEEN THE SEXES AND DEFINE THE PROCEDURES FOR ESTABLISHING THE HUSBAND-WIFE RELATION, THE RECIPROCAL OBLIGATIONS AND THE ACCEPTED RESTRICTIONS UPON ITS PERSONNEL. AS TO THE ORIGIN AND INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE, THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE CREATOR. HIMSELF HAS ESTABLISHED MARRIAGE. THAT IS, THE THAKUR JIU WHO CREATED THE FIRST HUMAN PAIR (PILCU HARAM AND PILCU BUDHI) HAS ALSO INSTITUTED MARRIAGE. ALTHOUGH THERE ARE SOME INSTANCES OF POLYGAMY, MONOGAMY IS THE NATURE OF MOST SANTAL MARRIAGES. BESIDES SERVING SEXUAL NEEDS AND PROCREATION OF HEIRS, A SANTAL MARRIAGE HAS ALSO OTHER PURPOSES, SUCH AS COMPANIONSHIP, FORMATION OF FAMILY, ECONOMIC SECURITY, COOPERATION IN THE FAMILY ENTERPRISE, SOCIAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL SECURITY, ETC. THUS, SANTAL MARRIAGE IS NOT ONLY BETWEEN TWO PERSONS OF OPPOSITE SEX BUT IT ALSO BECOMES A BOND OF UNION BETWEEN TWO FAMILIES, TWO VILLAGES, AND. ALSO INFLUENCES THE CIRCLE OF RELATIONSHIP AMONG THE RELATIVES. M. A. JALIL MENTIONS FOUR TYPES OF MARRIAGE AMONG THE SANTALS IN BANGLADESH. THESE ARE: 1) DANGWA BAPLA (CONTACT MARRIAGE), 2) ANGIR BAPLA (LOVE MARRIAGE), 3) OR BAPLA (FORCE MARRIAGE), AND 4) ITUT’ BAPLA (TACTICAL MARRIAGE). MOREOVER, SANTALS DO HAVE EXCEPTIONS ESPECIALLY IN THE CASE OF MARRIAGE BETWEEN CANDIDATES OF THE SAME CLAN. FOR EXAMPLE, WHEN THE MARRIAGE OF A YOUNG COUPLE OF THE SAME CLAN FOR A VALID REASON BECOMES NECESSARY, AND CONSANGUINITY OR AFFINITY DOES NOT PREVENT IT, THEY APPLY A JURIDICAL PRETENSE. IN SUCH CASE, AN ELDERLY COUPLE OF A DIFFERENT CLAN, ADOPTS THE BRIDE AS THEIR DAUGHTER THROUGH A SIMPLE RITUAL CEREMONY AND GIVES THE PROPER NAME TO HER. 4. 5 ANNUAL FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES: THE SANTAL SOCIETY IS MARKED WITH FEASTS, FESTIVALS AND RITUAL CELEBRATIONS. ONE OF THE TERMS OFTEN used by the Santals is r sk? ? meaning happiness, or joy, WHICH IS NOT ONLY DEAR TO THEIR HEARTS BUT IS PART AND PARCEL OF THEIR LIFE. THUS, WE FIND DANCING AND SINGING HAVE A VERY IMPORTANT ROLE AT EVERY FESTIVAL OCCASION. IT BRINGS A SANTAL TO FORGET WORRIES AND STRESSES OF HIS OR HER 9 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh DAY-TO-DAY LIFE. IN THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE SANTALS, FEASTS AND FESTIVALS HAVE GREAT SIGNIFICANCE FOR THESE ARE THE LIVING EXPRESSION OF THE DEEP ASPIRATION OF JOY AND HAPPINESS, AND ALSO DEMONSTRATE THE FEELING OF COMMUNITY AND SOLIDARITY INTEGRATED AS PART OF THE NATURE OF THE SANTALS. MANY OF SUCH CHARACTERISTICS ARE EXPRESSED IN SONGS, MUSIC AND IN DANCE. IN FACT, THE SANTALS DON’T GIVE ANY SPACE TO INDIVIDUALISM AND IT IS REALLY DURING THE FEASTS AND FESTIVALS THAT AN INDIVIDUAL REALIZES HIMSELF OR HERSELF IN THE COMMUNITY AND HIS OR HER FUTURE ROLE IN THE LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY. ALTHOUGH, MOST OF THESE FESTIVALS SEEMINGLY APPEAR AS MERE GATHERING OF CLOSE FRIENDS AND RELATIVES, INDIVIDUALS OF THE SAME SUB-CLAN OR THAT CONCERN ONLY THE INHABITANTS OF A VILLAGE; YET, THERE ARE ALSO OCCASIONS THAT INVOLVE MORE VILLAGES, AS IT USUALLY HAPPENS ON THE OCCASION OF MARRIAGE WHEN PARTICIPATION IS MOSTLY UNANIMOUS. IN ANY OF THESE FEASTS AND FESTIVALS, THERE ARE CERTAIN RITES AND RITUALS BEING FOLLOWED OFTEN ACCOMPANIED BY SIMPLE OFFERING AT THE CENTER. ABLUTIONS AND UNCTION OF OIL, THE USE OF VERMILION TO MARK THE SACRIFICIAL VICTIM AND EVEN BEING USED BY THE PARTICIPANTS, BEARS A GREATER SIGNIFICANCE. IN FACT, SOME OF THESE FESTIVAL PERFORMANCES CONSIST OF SOME SORT OF WORSHIP OR FOLK CULTS. FROM THE RITES AND FESTIVALS OF THE SANTALS, IT IS QUITE CLEAR THAT THEIR ECONOMIC LIFE, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND RITUAL PERFORMANCES ARE INTERWOVEN MAINLY AROUND AGRICULTURE. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE ASPECTS OF MATERIAL LIFE MUST BE PROTECTED AND GUARDED BY APPROPRIATE RITES AND FESTIVALS; AND BONGA (SPIRITS) MUST BE SATISFIED BY GIVING THEIR DUE SHARES. MANY OF THE SOCIO-CULTURAL FESTIVALS AND RITUALISTIC CELEBRATIONS INDICATE THAT SANTALS. HAVE DEEPER INSIGHTS THAT GO BEYOND MERE EXTERNAL CELEBRATIONS. HOWEVER, DUE TO THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THIS STUDY, WE ONLY MENTION SOME MAIN ANNUAL FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES COMMONLY OBSERVED LIKE: SOHORAE (HARVEST FESTIVAL), BAHA (FLOWER festival), Erok’ (sowing of rice seeds in the field), Iri-Gundli N wai? (offering of THE FIRST FRUITS OF THE MILLET IRI), JANTHAR (OFFERING OF THE FIRST FRUITS OF THE WINTER RICE CROP). SANTALS ALSO HAVE OCCASIONAL RITES AND FESTIVALS, WHICH ARE NEITHER ASSOCIATED WITH AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS NOR PERFORMED ANNUALLY. SOME OF THESE ARE: JOM SIM, MAK’ MORE AND KARAM. 10 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 5. SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL REALITIES 5. 1 OCCUPATIONS AND LIVING: TRADITIONALLY SANTALS ARE MAINLY AGRICULTURISTS. THEY CLING TO THEIR LAND AS THEIR PRINCIPAL OCCUPATION AND MEANS OF SUBSISTENCE. ABOUT 95% OF THE SANTALS ARE INVOLVED IN AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS. INDUSTRIOUS AND HARDWORKING AS THEY ARE, UNFORTUNATELY THE SCIENTIFIC SIDE OF THEIR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT CULTIVATION AND MANAGING THEIR LAND HAS NOT BEEN DEVELOPED. IN THE PAST THE MAJORITY OF THE SANTALS WERE LANDOWNERS, BUT DUE TO THE INCREASE IN POPULATION, EXPLOITATION BY MONEYLENDERS AND LANDLORDS, ILLEGAL. OCCUPATION OF THEIR LAND, POVERTY AND ILLITERACY, NATURAL CALAMITIES ETC. THE VAST MAJORITY OF THE SANTALS IN BANGLADESH HAVE LOST THEIR LAND PROPERTIES. AT PRESENT, NEARLY 80% OF THE SANTALS ARE LAND-LESS, FORCING THEM TO EARN THEIR LIVELIHOOD DEPENDING ON THE MERCY AND AVAILABILITY OF WORK IN THE FIELDS OF THEIR MUSLIM OR HINDU NEIGHBORS FOR THEIR MERE SUBSISTENCE. YET, IT IS SIGNIFICANT TO NOTE THAT TRADITIONALLY THERE ARE NO BEGGARS AMONG THE SANTALS. RATHER, THE SANTALS IN THE TIME OF DIRE POVERTY GO TO THE JUNGLE TO COLLECT WILD PLANTS, FRUITS, WILD POTATOES AND ROOTS OF YOUNG SHOOTS, FLOWERS, MUSHROOMS, ETC. HUNTING AND FISHING THAT USED TO BE PART OF SANTAL-LIVING, HAVE NOW BECOME SECONDARY IMPORTANCE DUE TO THE CHANGE OF SITUATION. LACK OF EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES IN THE VILLAGE AREAS, ALSO FORCED MANY SANTALS TO FLOCK TO THE NEARBY TOWNS AND CITIES IN SEARCH OF DAILY WAGES AND JOBS. THE WOMEN IN SANTAL SOCIETY PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN MAINTAINING THEIR FAMILIES BUT IN REALITY THEY REMAIN DEPRIVED OF THEIR EQUAL RIGHT, WHICH IS REFLECTED BY THE FACT THAT WOMEN ARE NOT ELIGIBLE FOR THE INHERITANCE OF PROPERTIES. SANTALS HAVE NEVER BEEN FOUND TO BE INTERESTED IN COMMERCE OR ANY SUCH PROFESSION TO AVAIL OF ECONOMIC SELF-RELIANCE. THIS IS ONE OF THE REASONS WHY. THEY REMAIN RATHER MARGINALIZED INVITING POVERTY IN THEIR LIVES. MOREOVER, MOST SANTALS DO NOT THINK ABOUT FUTURE, RATHER THEY ARE MORE CONCERNED FOR THE DAY; IT’S A DAY-TO-DAY LIVING AND THEY REMAIN SATISFIED AND HAPPY WITH THE LITTLE THEY CAN HAVE FOR MAINTAINING THEIR FAMILY. HOWEVER, DUE TO SOME PROGRESS IN EDUCATION, A SMALL NUMBER OF SANTALS HAVE BEEN ABLE TO MAKE LITTLE CHANGES IN THEIR WAY OF LIVING. 11 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh SOME HAVE TAKEN UP MODERN PROFESSIONS LIKE TEACHINGS, TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE, JUDICIAL ADVOCACY, NURSING ETC. 5. 2 POLITICAL REALITY: SANTALS, A PEACE LOVING PEOPLE HAVE NEVER BEEN FOUND INTERESTED IN POLITICS. YET, THEY HAVE ALWAYS REACTED WHEN THINGS WENT SEVERELY PAINFUL AND THEY WERE PUSHED AGAINST THE WALL WHEN THEY COULD NOT BEAR ANYMORE. THE HISTORIC SANTAL REVOLUTION IN 1855-56, THE TEBHAGA ANDOLON (SHARE CROPPERS’ MOVEMENT) IN 1945, AND THE NACHOL BIDROHO (FARMERS’ REVOLUTION) IN THE YEAR 1950, ARE THE CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF THE PAST. IN FACT, SANTALS HAVE ALWAYS BEEN USED BY OTHERS IN THE FOREFRONT BATTLE. ILLITERACY, ABSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL SET UP AND LACK OF GENUINE. LEADERSHIP HAVE KEPT THE SANTALS FAR FROM ACHIEVING ANY END RESULT. IN RECENT YEARS, SOME OF THE SANTALS HAVE BEEN FOUND TO TAKE ACTIVE ROLE IN THE LOCAL POLITICS BY THEIR PARTICIPATION IN THE LOCAL ELECTION. 12 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 6. BELIEFS AND RITUAL PRACTICES 6. 1 THE BELIEF IN ONE SUPREME BEING: AS IT HAS ALREADY BEEN MENTIONED EARLIER, SANTALS DO BELIEVE IN ONE â€Å"SUPREME BEING† WHOM THEY CALL THAKUR JIU (LIFE GIVER) OR MARANG BURU (GREAT MOUNTAIN) WHO IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE â€Å"SUPREME† AMONG ALL THE â€Å"RELIGIOUS BEINGS†. THE MOST COMMON SANTAL-TERM USED FOR THE SUPREME BEING. THESE DAYS IS CANDO BABA (SUN FATHER). ACCORDING TO THE EXPERIENCE OF THE RESEARCHER THE SANTALS HERE DO NOT REFER LITERALLY TO THE SUN ITSELF RATHER, IT IS AN EXPRESSION OF A DIVINE ACTIVITY: EXPRESSION OF DIVINE LOVE IN RELATION TO HUMAN BEINGS. FOR THE SANTALS, CANDO BABA IS A BENEVOLENT DEITY WHO ORGANIZES THE DAYS AND NIGHTS AND IS RESPONSIBLE FOR HEAT AND COLD, RAIN AND SUNSHINE; AND FROM A DWELLING ‘SOMEWHERE IN THE SKY’, ALLOTS EACH SANTAL A TERM OF LIFE HERE ON EARTH. BUT, HE STAYS FAR AWAY, FAR ABOVE THE SKY AND CANNOT BE REACHED. IT IS UNDERNEATH. THE SUN, BENEATH THE CLOUDS, THAT SANTAL LIFE IS CHALLENGED. HERE THE BONGA ROAM AROUND AND ONLY BY COMING TO TERMS WITH THEM CAN SANTALS BE HAPPY. 6. 2 THE BELIEF IN BONGA (SPIRITS): THE SANTALS BELIEVE IN THE EXISTENCE OF THE SPIRITS WHO ARE CALLED BONGA. THE BONGA HAVE MUCH REPERCUSSION ON DAILY LIVING OF THE SANTALS. TO ENSURE THEIR CONTINUING CARE, BESIDE ANNUAL SACRIFICES, THE BONGA ARE REMEMBERED IN A DAILY BASIS. WHENEVER A MEAL IS TAKEN, A SMALL PORTION OF THE FOOD IS DROPPED ON THE FLOOR FOR THE BONGA, OR AT THE TIME WHENEVER RICE-BEER IS DRUNK, A LITTLE IS SPILT ON THE GROUND FOR MARANG BURU. THUS, THE SANTALS LIVE NOT ONLY IN THEIR TRIBAL SOCIETY BUT IN A GREATER SOCIETY CONSISTING OF SUPERNATURAL BEINGS AS WELL. IN PRACTICE, THE SANTALS OFTEN USE THE TERM BONGA MEANING â€Å"TO INCORPORATE† SOMEONE INTO THE SOCIETY BY DOING CERTAIN RITUAL. THE PHRASE USED IN THIS CASE IS: BONGA TALA KEDEAKO MEANING, HE/SHE HAS BEEN ADMITTED INTO SANTAL SOCIETY. ACCORDING TO THE SANTAL RELIGIOUS BELIEF THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF BONGA—THE MALEVOLENT AND THE BENEVOLENT ONES. THE BONGA-WORSHIP IS PRIMARILY TO PLEASE AND TO INVOKE THE POWERS OF THE BENEVOLENT BONGA AND TO AVERT THE ILL WILL OF THE MALEVOLENT BONGA. IN THE WORSHIP OF BONGA WE CAN DISTINGUISH ANALYTICALLY TWO INTERRELATED ASPECTS: 13 | P a g e Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh A) THE OBJECTIVE ASPECT OF THE RELIGIOUS RITES IS TO HAVE AN ALLIANCE WITH THE BENEVOLENT BONGA AND THEREBY CONTROLLING OR EVEN DEFEATING THE POWERS OF THE MALEVOLENT BONGA; AND B) THE EXPRESSIVE ASPECT OF THE WORSHIP IS MANIFESTED THROUGH VARIOUS SEASONAL AND RELIGIOUS RITES, FESTIVALS AND RITES ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS SOCIAL RITUALS. SANTALS HAVE AN INNATE RELATIONSHIP WITH THEIR BONGA AND CONSIDER THEMSELVES LIVING WITH THEM. THIS RELATIONSHIP IS MOSTLY OF DEPENDENCE, SUBMISSION, PROPITIATION AND REVERENTIAL FEAR. THE SANTALS DO SUPPLICATIONS; OFFER RICE-BEER; AND ANIMAL SACRIFICES IN THE NAME OF THE BONGA. IT IS WORTH MENTIONING THAT THERE ARE INSTANCES AMONG THE SANTALS IN THE RURAL VILLAGES WHERE PERSONS EVEN IN TIME OF SERIOUS SICKNESS WOULD NOT LOOK FOR MEDICAL HELP INSTEAD LEAVE IT TO THE BONGA TO BE CURED. 6. 3 BELIEF IN WITCHCRAFT: RELATED TO SANTAL BELIEF-SYSTEM, IS ALSO THE EXISTENCE OF WITCHES. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THERE ARE CERTAIN PEOPLE, ESPECIALLY WOMEN, WHO POSSESS SPECIAL POWER AND TECHNIQUES TO HARM PEOPLE, CATTLE, AND CROPS. THESE SO-CALLED WITCHES ARE INVOLVED IN DOING HARMFUL ACTIVITIES LIKE GIVING POISONS, TAKING OUT HUMAN LIVERS, SENDING TROUBLESOME SPIRITS TO CERTAIN FAMILIES AND CHANGING THEMSELVES INTO BLACK CATS. BECAUSE OF SUCH BELIEF IN WITCHCRAFT PRACTICES, THE SANTALS EASILY SUSPECT ONE ANOTHER, AND ARE OFTEN LED TO FIGHT. IT IS PRESUMED THAT IT IS ESSENTIAL TO HAVE SUCH A BELIEF ESPECIALLY IN THE PAGAN WORLD. HOWEVER, THERE IS ALSO A COUNTER-BELIEF AMONG THE SANTALS THAT THERE ARE CERTAIN PEOPLE OJHA-JANGURU (SPECIALISTS), MAINLY MEN, WHO POSSESS SPECIAL POWER AND. TECHNIQUES FOR DETECTING WITCHES AND NULLIFYING THEIR SPELLS. THUS, WHENEVER SANTALS GET INTO TROUBLE, THEY SEEK THE HELP OF THESE PEOPLE WHO, MORE OFTEN EXPLOIT THE SOCIETY. REFERRING TO THE SICKNESS AND OTHER PROBLEMS, THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THEY ARE CAUSED BY THE EVIL SPIRITS WHEN THEY BECOME DISSATISFIED WITH THE SACRIFICES OF THE PEOPLE OR WHEN THEY THINK THAT THEY ARE BEING MANIPULATED BY SOME EVIL-MINDED PEOPLE (WITCHES). THEREFORE, THE SANTALS TRY TO IDENTIFY THE AGENTS OF THE TROUBLE THROUGH THE HELP OF OJHA–JANGURU AND TRY TO PACIFY EACH AGENT THROUGH VARIOUS SACRIFICES. 14 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh 6. 4 THE ANCESTORS: FROM THE RITES AND RITUALS AS PRACTICED BY THE SANTALS, IT IS QUITE EVIDENT THAT ANCESTOR-WORSHIP IS A COMMON FEATURE AMONG THEM. THE DEAD ANCESTORS ARE THE REAL BENEFACTORS OF THE FAMILIES OR GROUPS TO WHICH THEY BELONGED AND THAT THEY ARE EASILY APPROACHABLE BY THEIR LIVING KINSMEN. HENCE, AT ALL IMPORTANT OCCASIONS OF BIRTH, OF MARRIAGE OR OF DEATH THE DECEASED ANCESTORS ARE REMEMBERED AND OFFERED SACRIFICES. 6. 5 THE JAHERTHAN OR THE SACRED GROVE IS AN ESSENTIAL PART OF A SANTAL VILLAGE. IT IS A SACRED PLACE OF SPECIAL WORSHIP FOR THE SANTALS. AFTER A VILLAGE HAS BEEN SET UP, A JAHERTHAN IS INSTALLED THROUGH RITUAL CEREMONY AT THE OUTSKIRT OF THE VILLAGE. THE MAIN DEITY OF THE JAHERTHAN, IS KNOWN AS JAHER ERA (THE LADY OF THE GROVE). ACCORDING TO THE SANTALS, SHE RESIDES THERE BESIDES OTHER IMPORTANT DEITIES SUCH AS THE MOREKO-TURUIKO (LITERALLY MEANS †FIVE-SIX†). THE JAHER ERA PRESIDES OVER THE SACRED GROVE, TENDS OVER OTHER BONGA IN THE JAHERTHAN AND LOOKS AFTER THE INTERESTS OF THE VILLAGERS ESPECIALLY FOR THEIR PHYSICAL NEEDS. THE SPIRITS OF THE JAHERTHAN ARE WORSHIPPED DURING THE PRINCIPAL FESTIVALS, LIKE SOHORAE (HARVEST FESTIVAL), BAHA. (FLOWER FESTIVAL), EROK’ (SOWING FESTIVAL), AND SO ON FOR THE GENERAL WELFARE OF THE VILLAGE PARTICULARLY FOR OBTAINING GOOD CROPS AND FOR THE HEALTH OF THE VILLAGERS AND THEIR LIVESTOCK. 6. 6 The M njhithan? or the altar of the headman is placed along side the kulhi (VILLAGE ROAD) OR OFTEN AT THE CENTRAL PLACE OF THE VILLAGE OR IN FRONT THE HOUSE OF THE M njhi? (the headman). It is believed that the Manjhi bonga (spirit of the headman) RESIDES IN THIS ALTAR AND ACTS AS THE SPIRITUAL ADVISER OF THE HEADMAN. HERE THE M njhi? offers sacrifice for the benefit of himself, his family and for the whole. VILLAGE. 6. 7 THE â€Å"HOUSE-ALTAR†: IN THE INNER SIDE OF A SANTAL HOUSE, THERE REMAINS THE bhit r, ? a tiny compartment, which is the darkest space of the house. It is the abode OF THE ORAK BONGA (HOUSE SPIRITS) OR OFTEN KNOWN AS ABGE BONGA—THE BONGA OF THE SUB-CLAN. THE HEAD OF THE FAMILY DOES THE WORSHIP. IN ANY OCCASION OF THE FAMILY AND SOCIAL FESTIVALS, FOOD OFFERING IS MADE ON THIS ALTAR. THE NAMES OF THE ORAK BONGA ARE NOT REVEALED TO OUTSIDERS AND EVEN TO THE FEMALE MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE RATHER, HANDED DOWN FROM FATHER TO SON. USUALLY THE ELDEST SON RECEIVES THE NAME FROM HIS FATHER. 15 | P a g e. Ethnic Group Of Bangladesh The bhit r? is also used as a secret place to germinate and to store h ndi ? (rice beer), WHICH IS NOT ONLY USED AS NORMAL DRINK BUT ITS USE IS SIGNIFICANT AND EXTENDED TO SOCIO-CULTURAL RITUALISTIC CELEBRATIONS, AND EVEN THAT TO BE OFFERED TO SATISFY THE BONGA. 6. 8 THE â€Å"AFTER-LIFE† IS THE CONTINUATION OF LIFE THAT IS LIVED IN THIS WORLD. THE SANTALS BELIEVE THAT THE SPIRIT OF THE DECEASED GOES TO A SHADOWY WORLD WHERE THE PERSON REQUIRES THE MATERIALS OF THIS WORLD. THIS IS WELL EXPRESSED WITH THE RITUAL PRACTICES DONE AT THE TIME OF BURIAL AND DURING THE BHANDAN, THE LAST CEREMONY DONE. IN HONOR OF THE DEAD. IN THE PAST, IT WAS PERFORMED IMMEDIATELY AFTER ALL THE REQUIREMENTS HAD BEEN FULFILLED FOR THE DECEASED PERSON, BUT IN PRESENT DAYS SUCH CEREMONY, IN A RICH FAMILY, IS DONE WITHIN TWO OR THREE MONTHS FROM THE DEATH AND IN A POOR FAMILY, IT IS ONE YEAR OR TWO. FOR THE SANTALS, THE MORE NUMEROUS ARE THE ANIMAL-VICTIMS OFFERED IN HONOR OF THE DEAD DURING THE BHANDAN, THE MORE WOULD BE THE ANIMALS THAT THE ANCESTOR WILL HAVE IN THE OTHER WORLD. MOST ANIMAL-VICTIMS ARE DONATED BY THE RELATIVES AND NONE OF THEM ARE TO BE SPARED FOR FUTURE USE BY THE FAMILY CONCERNED. TRADITIONALLY EVERY SANTAL, MALE AND FEMALE, IS SUPPOSED TO BEAR UNDELETABLE SCARS on the body. For the male, it is the sik? that must be at least three scars REPRESENTING JION (LIFE), MORON (DEATH), AND JION (LIFE). THE SANTAL WOMEN DO NOT practice sik? , but to escape to be devoured by the worms in the life-after, they have THEIR CHEST TATTOOED, WHICH IS CALLED BY THE SANTALS KHODA. FR. PUSSETTO, WITH HIS VAST EXPERIENCE WITH THE SANTALS TESTIFIED: I HAVE NOT ONLY SEEN SANTAL WOMEN TATTOOED ON THE CHEST BUT ALSO ON THE BACK, ON THE FACE, ON THE ARMS AND ON THE LEGS; THE TATTOO WERE ENOUGH COMPLICATED, BUT PURELY ORNAMENTAL†¦THE TA.